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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Built-in Types</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#truth-value-testing">Truth Value Testing</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-operations-and-or-not">Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">and</code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">or</code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">not</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numeric-types-int-float-complex">Numeric Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">complex</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types">Bitwise Operations on Integer Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-methods-on-integer-types">Additional Methods on Integer Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-methods-on-float">Additional Methods on Float</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashing-of-numeric-types">Hashing of numeric types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-type-bool">Boolean Type - <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iterator-types">Iterator Types</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-types">Generator Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequence-types-list-tuple-range">Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-sequence-operations">Common Sequence Operations</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#immutable-sequence-types">Immutable Sequence Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mutable-sequence-types">Mutable Sequence Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lists">Lists</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tuples">Tuples</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ranges">Ranges</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-sequence-type-str">Text Sequence Type — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printf-style-string-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code>-style String Formatting</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">Binary Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-objects">Bytes Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray-objects">Bytearray Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-and-bytearray-operations">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printf-style-bytes-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code>-style Bytes Formatting</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memory-views">Memory Views</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#set-types-set-frozenset">Set Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-types-dict">Mapping Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dictionary-view-objects">Dictionary view objects</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#context-manager-types">Context Manager Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-annotation-types-generic-alias-union">Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generic-alias-type">Generic Alias Type</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-generic-classes">Standard Generic Classes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-attributes-of-genericalias-objects">Special Attributes of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> objects</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#union-type">Union Type</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-built-in-types">Other Built-in Types</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modules">Modules</a></li>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-objects">Type Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-null-object">The Null Object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ellipsis-object">The Ellipsis Object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-notimplemented-object">The NotImplemented Object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#internal-objects">Internal Objects</a></li>
</ul>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-attributes">Special Attributes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#integer-string-conversion-length-limitation">Integer string conversion length limitation</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#affected-apis">Affected APIs</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuring-the-limit">Configuring the limit</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recommended-configuration">Recommended configuration</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
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 <section id="built-in-types">
<h1>Built-in Types<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>
The following sections describe the standard types that are built into the
interpreter.
The principal built-in types are numerics, sequences, mappings, classes,
instances and exceptions.
Some collection classes are mutable. The methods that add, subtract, or
rearrange their members in place, and don’t return a specific item, never return
the collection instance itself but <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
Some operations are supported by several object types; in particular,
practically all objects can be compared for equality, tested for truth
value, and converted to a string (with the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">repr()</code></a> function or the
slightly different <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a> function). The latter function is implicitly
used when an object is written by the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">print()</code></a> function.
<section id="truth-value-testing">
<h2>Truth Value Testing<a class="headerlink" href="#truth-value-testing" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">if</code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">while</code></a> condition or as operand of the Boolean operations below.
By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either a
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bool__" title="object.__bool__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__bool__()</code></a> method that returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> or a
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__" title="object.__len__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__len__()</code></a> method that
returns zero, when called with the object. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id12" id="id1" role="doc-noteref">[1]</a> Here are most of the built-in
objects considered false:
<ul class="simple" id="index-3">
<li>constants defined to be false: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code></li>
<li>zero of any numeric type: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0.0</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0j</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Decimal(0)</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">Fraction(0, 1)</code></li>
<li>empty sequences and collections: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">''</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">()</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[]</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{}</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set()</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">range(0)</code></li>
</ul>
Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>
or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> for false and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> for true, unless otherwise stated.
(Important exception: the Boolean operations <code class="docutils literal notranslate">or</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">and</code> always return
one of their operands.)
</section>
<section id="boolean-operations-and-or-not">
<h2>Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">and</code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">or</code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">not</code><a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-operations-and-or-not" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
These are the Boolean operations, ordered by ascending priority:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Result</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x or y</code></td>
<td>if x is true, then x, else
y</td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x and y</code></td>
<td>if x is false, then x, else
y</td>
<td>(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">not x</code></td>
<td>if x is false, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code>,
else <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code></td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Notes:
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second
argument if the first one is false.</li>
<li>This is a short-circuit operator, so it only evaluates the second
argument if the first one is true.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">not</code> has a lower priority than non-Boolean operators, so <code class="docutils literal notranslate">not a == b</code> is
interpreted as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">not (a == b)</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a == not b</code> is a syntax error.</li>
</ol>
</section>
<section id="comparisons">
<h2>Comparisons<a class="headerlink" href="#comparisons" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
There are eight comparison operations in Python. They all have the same
priority (which is higher than that of the Boolean operations). Comparisons can
be chained arbitrarily; for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &lt; y &lt;= z</code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &lt; y and
y &lt;= z</code>, except that y is evaluated only once (but in both cases z is not
evaluated at all when <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &lt; y</code> is found to be false).
This table summarizes the comparison operations:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Meaning</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;</code></td>
<td>strictly less than</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;=</code></td>
<td>less than or equal</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">&gt;</code></td>
<td>strictly greater than</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">&gt;=</code></td>
<td>greater than or equal</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">==</code></td>
<td>equal</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">!=</code></td>
<td>not equal</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">is</code></td>
<td>object identity</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">is not</code></td>
<td>negated object identity</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Objects of different types, except different numeric types, never compare equal.
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">==</code> operator is always defined but for some object types (for example,
class objects) is equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">is</code></a>. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;=</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&gt;</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&gt;=</code>
operators are only defined where they make sense; for example, they raise a
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> exception when one of the arguments is a complex number.
Non-identical instances of a class normally compare as non-equal unless the
class defines the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__eq__()</code></a> method.
Instances of a class cannot be ordered with respect to other instances of the
same class, or other types of object, unless the class defines enough of the
methods <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__lt__()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__le__" title="object.__le__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__le__()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__gt__" title="object.__gt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__gt__()</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__ge__" title="object.__ge__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__ge__()</code></a> (in general, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__lt__" title="object.__lt__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__lt__()</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__" title="object.__eq__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__eq__()</code></a> are sufficient, if you want the conventional meanings of the
comparison operators).
The behavior of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">is</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#is-not"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">is not</code></a> operators cannot be
customized; also they can be applied to any two objects and never raise an
exception.
Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">in</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#not-in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">not in</code></a>, are supported by types that are <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable">iterable</a> or
implement the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__contains__()</code></a> method.
</section>
<section id="numeric-types-int-float-complex">
<h2>Numeric Types — <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">complex</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-types-int-float-complex" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
There are three distinct numeric types: integers, floating
point numbers, and complex numbers. In addition, Booleans are a
subtype of integers. Integers have unlimited precision. Floating point
numbers are usually implemented using double in C; information
about the precision and internal representation of floating point
numbers for the machine on which your program is running is available
in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.float_info" title="sys.float_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.float_info</code></a>. Complex numbers have a real and imaginary
part, which are each a floating point number. To extract these parts
from a complex number z, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate">z.real</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">z.imag</code>. (The standard
library includes the additional numeric types <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">fractions.Fraction</code></a>, for
rationals, and <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">decimal.Decimal</code></a>, for floating-point numbers with
user-definable precision.)
Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions
and operators. Unadorned integer literals (including hex, octal and binary
numbers) yield integers. Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an
exponent sign yield floating point numbers. Appending <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'j'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'J'</code> to a
numeric literal yields an imaginary number (a complex number with a zero real
part) which you can add to an integer or float to get a complex number with real
and imaginary parts.
Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has
operands of different numeric types, the operand with the “narrower” type is
widened to that of the other, where integer is narrower than floating point,
which is narrower than complex. A comparison between numbers of different types
behaves as though the exact values of those numbers were being compared. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id13" id="id2" role="doc-noteref">[2]</a>
The constructors <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">float()</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">complex()</code></a> can be used to produce numbers of a specific type.
All numeric types (except complex) support the following operations (for priorities of
the operations, see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#operator-summary">Operator precedence</a>):
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Result</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
<th class="head">Full documentation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x + y</code></td>
<td>sum of x and y</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x - y</code></td>
<td>difference of x and y</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x * y</code></td>
<td>product of x and y</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x / y</code></td>
<td>quotient of x and y</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x // y</code></td>
<td>floored quotient of x and
y</td>
<td>(1)(2)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x % y</code></td>
<td>remainder of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x / y</code></td>
<td>(2)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">-x</code></td>
<td>x negated</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">+x</code></td>
<td>x unchanged</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">abs(x)</code></td>
<td>absolute value or magnitude of
x</td>
<td></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">abs()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">int(x)</code></td>
<td>x converted to integer</td>
<td>(3)(6)</td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">float(x)</code></td>
<td>x converted to floating point</td>
<td>(4)(6)</td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">float()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">complex(re, im)</code></td>
<td>a complex number with real part
re, imaginary part im.
im defaults to zero.</td>
<td>(6)</td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">complex()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.conjugate()</code></td>
<td>conjugate of the complex number
c</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">divmod(x, y)</code></td>
<td>the pair <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(x // y, x % y)</code></td>
<td>(2)</td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">divmod()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow(x, y)</code></td>
<td>x to the power y</td>
<td>(5)</td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">pow()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x ** y</code></td>
<td>x to the power y</td>
<td>(5)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Notes:
<ol class="arabic">
<li>Also referred to as integer division. For operands of type <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>,
the result has type <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>. For operands of type <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>,
the result has type <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>. In general, the result is a whole
integer, though the result’s type is not necessarily <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>. The result is
always rounded towards minus infinity: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1//2</code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(-1)//2</code> is
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1//(-2)</code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(-1)//(-2)</code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>.</li>
<li>Not for complex numbers. Instead convert to floats using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">abs()</code></a> if
appropriate.</li>
<li>Conversion from <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> truncates, discarding the
fractional part. See functions <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">math.floor()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">math.ceil()</code></a> for
alternative conversions.
</li>
<li>float also accepts the strings “nan” and “inf” with an optional prefix “+”
or “-” for Not a Number (NaN) and positive or negative infinity.</li>
<li>Python defines <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow(0, 0)</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0 ** 0</code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code>, as is common for
programming languages.</li>
<li>The numeric literals accepted include the digits <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">9</code> or any
Unicode equivalent (code points with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Nd</code> property).
See <a class="reference external" href="https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt">the Unicode Standard</a>
for a complete list of code points with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Nd</code> property.
</li>
</ol>
All <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">numbers.Real</code></a> types (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>) also include
the following operations:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Result</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.trunc" title="math.trunc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">math.trunc(x)</code></a></td>
<td>x truncated to <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Integral</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">round(x[,
n])</code></a></td>
<td>x rounded to n digits,
rounding half to even. If n is
omitted, it defaults to 0.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.floor" title="math.floor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">math.floor(x)</code></a></td>
<td>the greatest <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Integral</code></a>
&lt;= x</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.ceil" title="math.ceil"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">math.ceil(x)</code></a></td>
<td>the least <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">Integral</code></a> &gt;= x</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
For additional numeric operations see the <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">math</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="cmath.html#module-cmath" title="cmath: Mathematical functions for complex numbers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">cmath</code></a>
modules.
<section id="bitwise-operations-on-integer-types">
<h3>Bitwise Operations on Integer Types<a class="headerlink" href="#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Bitwise operations only make sense for integers. The result of bitwise
operations is calculated as though carried out in two’s complement with an
infinite number of sign bits.
The priorities of the binary bitwise operations are all lower than the numeric
operations and higher than the comparisons; the unary operation <code class="docutils literal notranslate">~</code> has the
same priority as the other unary numeric operations (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">+</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-</code>).
This table lists the bitwise operations sorted in ascending priority:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Result</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x | y</code></td>
<td>bitwise or of x and
y</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x ^ y</code></td>
<td>bitwise exclusive or of
x and y</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &amp; y</code></td>
<td>bitwise and of x and
y</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &lt;&lt; n</code></td>
<td>x shifted left by n bits</td>
<td>(1)(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &gt;&gt; n</code></td>
<td>x shifted right by n bits</td>
<td>(1)(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">~x</code></td>
<td>the bits of x inverted</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Notes:
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>Negative shift counts are illegal and cause a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> to be raised.</li>
<li>A left shift by n bits is equivalent to multiplication by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow(2, n)</code>.</li>
<li>A right shift by n bits is equivalent to floor division by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow(2, n)</code>.</li>
<li>Performing these calculations with at least one extra sign extension bit in
a finite two’s complement representation (a working bit-width of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">1 + max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length())</code> or more) is sufficient to get the
same result as if there were an infinite number of sign bits.</li>
</ol>
</section>
<section id="additional-methods-on-integer-types">
<h3>Additional Methods on Integer Types<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-methods-on-integer-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The int type implements the <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Integral" title="numbers.Integral"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">numbers.Integral</code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class">abstract base
class</a>. In addition, it provides a few more methods:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int.bit_length">
int.bit_length()<a class="headerlink" href="#int.bit_length" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the number of bits necessary to represent an integer in binary,
excluding the sign and leading zeros:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; n = -37
&gt;&gt;&gt; bin(n)
&#39;-0b100101&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; n.bit_length()
6
</pre></div>
</div>
More precisely, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> is nonzero, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x.bit_length()</code> is the
unique positive integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate">k</code> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">2**(k-1) &lt;= abs(x) &lt; 2**k</code>.
Equivalently, when <code class="docutils literal notranslate">abs(x)</code> is small enough to have a correctly
rounded logarithm, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate">k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2))</code>.
If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> is zero, then <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x.bit_length()</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>.
Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def bit_length(self):
 s = bin(self) # binary representation: bin(-37) --&gt; &#39;-0b100101&#39;
 s = s.lstrip(&#39;-0b&#39;) # remove leading zeros and minus sign
 return len(s) # len(&#39;100101&#39;) --&gt; 6
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.1.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int.bit_count">
int.bit_count()<a class="headerlink" href="#int.bit_count" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the number of ones in the binary representation of the absolute
value of the integer. This is also known as the population count.
Example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; n = 19
&gt;&gt;&gt; bin(n)
&#39;0b10011&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; n.bit_count()
3
&gt;&gt;&gt; (-n).bit_count()
3
</pre></div>
</div>
Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def bit_count(self):
 return bin(self).count(&quot;1&quot;)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.10.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int.to_bytes">
int.to_bytes(length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#int.to_bytes" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return an array of bytes representing an integer.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;)
b&#39;\x04\x00&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;)
b&#39;\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;, signed=True)
b&#39;\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = 1000
&gt;&gt;&gt; x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder=&#39;little&#39;)
b&#39;\xe8\x03&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The integer is represented using length bytes, and defaults to 1. An
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OverflowError</code></a> is raised if the integer is not representable with
the given number of bytes.
The byteorder argument determines the byte order used to represent the
integer, and defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;big&quot;</code>. If byteorder is
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;big&quot;</code>, the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte
array. If byteorder is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;little&quot;</code>, the most significant byte is at
the end of the byte array.
The signed argument determines whether two’s complement is used to
represent the integer. If signed is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> and a negative integer is
given, an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OverflowError</code></a> is raised. The default value for signed
is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
The default values can be used to conveniently turn an integer into a
single byte object:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; (65).to_bytes()
b&#39;A&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
However, when using the default arguments, don’t try
to convert a value greater than 255 or you’ll get an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OverflowError</code></a>.
Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;, signed=False):
 if byteorder == &#39;little&#39;:
 order = range(length)
 elif byteorder == &#39;big&#39;:
 order = reversed(range(length))
 else:
 raise ValueError(&quot;byteorder must be either &#39;little&#39; or &#39;big&#39;&quot;)

return bytes((n &gt;&gt; i*8) &amp; 0xff for i in order)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.11: Added default argument values for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">length</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">byteorder</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int.from_bytes">
classmethod int.from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#int.from_bytes" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the integer represented by the given array of bytes.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; int.from_bytes(b&#39;\x00\x10&#39;, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;)
16
&gt;&gt;&gt; int.from_bytes(b&#39;\x00\x10&#39;, byteorder=&#39;little&#39;)
4096
&gt;&gt;&gt; int.from_bytes(b&#39;\xfc\x00&#39;, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;, signed=True)
-1024
&gt;&gt;&gt; int.from_bytes(b&#39;\xfc\x00&#39;, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;, signed=False)
64512
&gt;&gt;&gt; int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder=&#39;big&#39;)
16711680
</pre></div>
</div>
The argument bytes must either be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> or an
iterable producing bytes.
The byteorder argument determines the byte order used to represent the
integer, and defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;big&quot;</code>. If byteorder is
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;big&quot;</code>, the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte
array. If byteorder is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;little&quot;</code>, the most significant byte is at
the end of the byte array. To request the native byte order of the host
system, use <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.byteorder" title="sys.byteorder"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.byteorder</code></a> as the byte order value.
The signed argument indicates whether two’s complement is used to
represent the integer.
Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder=&#39;big&#39;, signed=False):
 if byteorder == &#39;little&#39;:
 little_ordered = list(bytes)
 elif byteorder == &#39;big&#39;:
 little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
 else:
 raise ValueError(&quot;byteorder must be either &#39;little&#39; or &#39;big&#39;&quot;)

n = sum(b &lt;&lt; i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
 if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] &amp; 0x80):
 n -= 1 &lt;&lt; 8*len(little_ordered)

return n
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.11: Added default argument value for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">byteorder</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int.as_integer_ratio">
int.as_integer_ratio()<a class="headerlink" href="#int.as_integer_ratio" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original
integer and has a positive denominator. The integer ratio of integers
(whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code> as the
denominator.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.8.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int.is_integer">
int.is_integer()<a class="headerlink" href="#int.is_integer" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code>. Exists for duck type compatibility with <a class="reference internal" href="#float.is_integer" title="float.is_integer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">float.is_integer()</code></a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.12.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="additional-methods-on-float">
<h3>Additional Methods on Float<a class="headerlink" href="#additional-methods-on-float" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The float type implements the <a class="reference internal" href="numbers.html#numbers.Real" title="numbers.Real"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">numbers.Real</code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class">abstract base
class</a>. float also has the following additional methods.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="float.as_integer_ratio">
float.as_integer_ratio()<a class="headerlink" href="#float.as_integer_ratio" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the
original float. The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive denominator. Raises
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OverflowError</code></a> on infinities and a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> on
NaNs.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="float.is_integer">
float.is_integer()<a class="headerlink" href="#float.is_integer" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the float instance is finite with integral
value, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; (-2.0).is_integer()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; (3.2).is_integer()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

Two methods support conversion to
and from hexadecimal strings. Since Python’s floats are stored
internally as binary numbers, converting a float to or from a
decimal string usually involves a small rounding error. In
contrast, hexadecimal strings allow exact representation and
specification of floating-point numbers. This can be useful when
debugging, and in numerical work.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="float.hex">
float.hex()<a class="headerlink" href="#float.hex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a representation of a floating-point number as a hexadecimal
string. For finite floating-point numbers, this representation
will always include a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0x</code> and a trailing <code class="docutils literal notranslate">p</code> and
exponent.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="float.fromhex">
classmethod float.fromhex(s)<a class="headerlink" href="#float.fromhex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Class method to return the float represented by a hexadecimal
string s. The string s may have leading and trailing
whitespace.
</dd></dl>

Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">float.hex()</code></a> is an instance method, while
<a class="reference internal" href="#float.fromhex" title="float.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">float.fromhex()</code></a> is a class method.
A hexadecimal string takes the form:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>[sign] [&#39;0x&#39;] integer [&#39;.&#39; fraction] [&#39;p&#39; exponent]
</pre></div>
</div>
where the optional <code class="docutils literal notranslate">sign</code> may by either <code class="docutils literal notranslate">+</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">integer</code>
and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">fraction</code> are strings of hexadecimal digits, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">exponent</code>
is a decimal integer with an optional leading sign. Case is not
significant, and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in
either the integer or the fraction. This syntax is similar to the
syntax specified in section 6.4.4.2 of the C99 standard, and also to
the syntax used in Java 1.5 onwards. In particular, the output of
<a class="reference internal" href="#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">float.hex()</code></a> is usable as a hexadecimal floating-point literal in
C or Java code, and hexadecimal strings produced by C’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%a</code> format
character or Java’s <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Double.toHexString</code> are accepted by
<a class="reference internal" href="#float.fromhex" title="float.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">float.fromhex()</code></a>.
Note that the exponent is written in decimal rather than hexadecimal,
and that it gives the power of 2 by which to multiply the coefficient.
For example, the hexadecimal string <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0x3.a7p10</code> represents the
floating-point number <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) * 2.0**10</code>, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">3740.0</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; float.fromhex(&#39;0x3.a7p10&#39;)
3740.0
</pre></div>
</div>
Applying the reverse conversion to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">3740.0</code> gives a different
hexadecimal string representing the same number:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; float.hex(3740.0)
&#39;0x1.d380000000000p+11&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="hashing-of-numeric-types">
<h3>Hashing of numeric types<a class="headerlink" href="#hashing-of-numeric-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
For numbers <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">y</code>, possibly of different types, it’s a requirement
that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">hash(x) == hash(y)</code> whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x == y</code> (see the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__hash__" title="object.__hash__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__hash__()</code></a>
method documentation for more details). For ease of implementation and
efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">decimal.Decimal</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">fractions.Fraction</code></a>)
Python’s hash for numeric types is based on a single mathematical function
that’s defined for any rational number, and hence applies to all instances of
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">fractions.Fraction</code></a>, and all finite instances of
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">decimal.Decimal</code></a>. Essentially, this function is
given by reduction modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code> for a fixed prime <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code>. The value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code> is
made available to Python as the <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.hash_info.modulus" title="sys.hash_info.modulus"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">modulus</code></a> attribute of
<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.hash_info" title="sys.hash_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.hash_info</code></a>.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: Currently, the prime used is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P = 2**31 - 1</code> on machines with 32-bit C
longs and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P = 2**61 - 1</code> on machines with 64-bit C longs.
</div>
Here are the rules in detail:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x = m / n</code> is a nonnegative rational number and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">n</code> is not divisible
by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code>, define <code class="docutils literal notranslate">hash(x)</code> as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">m * invmod(n, P) % P</code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate">invmod(n,
P)</code> gives the inverse of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">n</code> modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code>.</li>
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x = m / n</code> is a nonnegative rational number and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">n</code> is
divisible by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code> (but <code class="docutils literal notranslate">m</code> is not) then <code class="docutils literal notranslate">n</code> has no inverse
modulo <code class="docutils literal notranslate">P</code> and the rule above doesn’t apply; in this case define
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">hash(x)</code> to be the constant value <code class="docutils literal notranslate">sys.hash_info.inf</code>.</li>
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x = m / n</code> is a negative rational number define <code class="docutils literal notranslate">hash(x)</code>
as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-hash(-x)</code>. If the resulting hash is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, replace it with
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">-2</code>.</li>
<li>The particular values <code class="docutils literal notranslate">sys.hash_info.inf</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-sys.hash_info.inf</code>
are used as hash values for positive
infinity or negative infinity (respectively).</li>
<li>For a <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">complex</code></a> number <code class="docutils literal notranslate">z</code>, the hash values of the real
and imaginary parts are combined by computing <code class="docutils literal notranslate">hash(z.real) +
sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)</code>, reduced modulo
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">2**sys.hash_info.width</code> so that it lies in
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
1))</code>. Again, if the result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, it’s replaced with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-2</code>.</li>
</ul>
To clarify the above rules, here’s some example Python code,
equivalent to the built-in hash, for computing the hash of a rational
number, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">complex</code></a>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>import sys, math

def hash_fraction(m, n):
 &quot;&quot;&quot;Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
 Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

&quot;&quot;&quot;
 P = sys.hash_info.modulus
 # Remove common factors of P. (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
 while m % P == n % P == 0:
 m, n = m // P, n // P

if n % P == 0:
 hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
 else:
 # Fermat&#39;s Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
 # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
 hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
 if m &lt; 0:
 hash_value = -hash_value
 if hash_value == -1:
 hash_value = -2
 return hash_value

def hash_float(x):
 &quot;&quot;&quot;Compute the hash of a float x.&quot;&quot;&quot;

if math.isnan(x):
 return object.__hash__(x)
 elif math.isinf(x):
 return sys.hash_info.inf if x &gt; 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
 else:
 return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

def hash_complex(z):
 &quot;&quot;&quot;Compute the hash of a complex number z.&quot;&quot;&quot;

hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
 # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
 M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
 hash_value = (hash_value &amp; (M - 1)) - (hash_value &amp; M)
 if hash_value == -1:
 hash_value = -2
 return hash_value
</pre></div>
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section id="boolean-type-bool">
<h2>Boolean Type - <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#boolean-type-bool" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
Booleans represent truth values. The <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a> type has exactly two
constant instances: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bool()</code></a> converts any value to a boolean, if the
value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section <a class="reference internal" href="#truth">Truth Value Testing</a> above).
For logical operations, use the <a class="reference internal" href="#boolean">boolean operators</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">and</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">or</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">not</code>.
When applying the bitwise operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&amp;</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">^</code> to two booleans, they
return a bool equivalent to the logical operations “and”, “or”, “xor”. However,
the logical operators <code class="docutils literal notranslate">and</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">or</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">!=</code> should be preferred
over <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&amp;</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">^</code>.
<div class="deprecated">
Deprecated since version 3.12: The use of the bitwise inversion operator <code class="docutils literal notranslate">~</code> is deprecated and will
raise an error in Python 3.14.
</div>
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> (see <a class="reference internal" href="#typesnumeric">Numeric Types — int, float, complex</a>). In
many numeric contexts, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.
However, relying on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a>
instead.
</section>
<section id="iterator-types">
<h2>Iterator Types<a class="headerlink" href="#iterator-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
Python supports a concept of iteration over containers. This is implemented
using two distinct methods; these are used to allow user-defined classes to
support iteration. Sequences, described below in more detail, always support
the iteration methods.
One method needs to be defined for container objects to provide <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable">iterable</a>
support:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="container.__iter__">
container.__iter__()<a class="headerlink" href="#container.__iter__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator">iterator</a> object. The object is required to support the
iterator protocol described below. If a container supports different types
of iteration, additional methods can be provided to specifically request
iterators for those iteration types. (An example of an object supporting
multiple forms of iteration would be a tree structure which supports both
breadth-first and depth-first traversal.) This method corresponds to the
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate">tp_iter</code></a> slot of the type structure for Python
objects in the Python/C API.
</dd></dl>

The iterator objects themselves are required to support the following two
methods, which together form the iterator protocol:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="iterator.__iter__">
iterator.__iter__()<a class="headerlink" href="#iterator.__iter__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator">iterator</a> object itself. This is required to allow both
containers and iterators to be used with the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">for</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">in</code></a> statements. This method corresponds to the
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iter" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iter"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate">tp_iter</code></a> slot of the type structure for Python
objects in the Python/C API.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="iterator.__next__">
iterator.__next__()<a class="headerlink" href="#iterator.__next__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the next item from the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator">iterator</a>. If there are no further
items, raise the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">StopIteration</code></a> exception. This method corresponds to
the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_iternext" title="PyTypeObject.tp_iternext"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate">tp_iternext</code></a> slot of the type structure for
Python objects in the Python/C API.
</dd></dl>

Python defines several iterator objects to support iteration over general and
specific sequence types, dictionaries, and other more specialized forms. The
specific types are not important beyond their implementation of the iterator
protocol.
Once an iterator’s <a class="reference internal" href="#iterator.__next__" title="iterator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__next__()</code></a> method raises
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">StopIteration</code></a>, it must continue to do so on subsequent calls.
Implementations that do not obey this property are deemed broken.
<section id="generator-types">
<h3>Generator Types<a class="headerlink" href="#generator-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator">generator</a>s provide a convenient way to implement the iterator
protocol. If a container object’s <a class="reference internal" href="#iterator.__iter__" title="iterator.__iter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__iter__()</code></a> method is implemented as a
generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a
generator object) supplying the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__iter__()</code> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#generator.__next__" title="generator.__next__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__next__()</code></a>
methods.
More information about generators can be found in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#yieldexpr">the documentation for
the yield expression</a>.
</section>
</section>
<section id="sequence-types-list-tuple-range">
<h2>Sequence Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#sequence-types-list-tuple-range" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
There are three basic sequence types: lists, tuples, and range objects.
Additional sequence types tailored for processing of
<a class="reference internal" href="#binaryseq">binary data</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#textseq">text strings</a> are
described in dedicated sections.
<section id="common-sequence-operations">
<h3>Common Sequence Operations<a class="headerlink" href="#common-sequence-operations" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The operations in the following table are supported by most sequence types,
both mutable and immutable. The <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Sequence</code></a> ABC is
provided to make it easier to correctly implement these operations on
custom sequence types.
This table lists the sequence operations sorted in ascending priority. In the
table, s and t are sequences of the same type, n, i, j and k are
integers and x is an arbitrary object that meets any type and value
restrictions imposed by s.
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">in</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">not in</code> operations have the same priorities as the
comparison operations. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">+</code> (concatenation) and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> (repetition)
operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id14" id="id4" role="doc-noteref">[3]</a>
<table class="docutils align-default" id="index-20">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Result</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x in s</code></td>
<td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if an item of s is
equal to x, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code></td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">x not in s</code></td>
<td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> if an item of s is
equal to x, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code></td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s + t</code></td>
<td>the concatenation of s and
t</td>
<td>(6)(7)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s * n</code> or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">n * s</code></td>
<td>equivalent to adding s to
itself n times</td>
<td>(2)(7)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i]</code></td>
<td>ith item of s, origin 0</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j]</code></td>
<td>slice of s from i to j</td>
<td>(3)(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j:k]</code></td>
<td>slice of s from i to j
with step k</td>
<td>(3)(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code></td>
<td>length of s</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">min(s)</code></td>
<td>smallest item of s</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">max(s)</code></td>
<td>largest item of s</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.index(x[, i[, j]])</code></td>
<td>index of the first occurrence
of x in s (at or after
index i and before index j)</td>
<td>(8)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.count(x)</code></td>
<td>total number of occurrences of
x in s</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Sequences of the same type also support comparisons. In particular, tuples
and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements.
This means that to compare equal, every element must compare equal and the
two sequences must be of the same type and have the same length. (For full
details see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a> in the language reference.)
Forward and reversed iterators over mutable sequences access values using an
index. That index will continue to march forward (or backward) even if the
underlying sequence is mutated. The iterator terminates only when an
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#IndexError" title="IndexError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">IndexError</code></a> or a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#StopIteration" title="StopIteration"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">StopIteration</code></a> is encountered (or when the index
drops below zero).
Notes:
<ol class="arabic">
<li>While the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">in</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">not in</code> operations are used only for simple
containment testing in the general case, some specialised sequences
(such as <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>) also use
them for subsequence testing:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;gg&quot; in &quot;eggs&quot;
True
</pre></div>
</div>
</li>
<li>Values of n less than <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code> are treated as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code> (which yields an empty
sequence of the same type as s). Note that items in the sequence s
are not copied; they are referenced multiple times. This often haunts
new Python programmers; consider:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; lists = [[]] * 3
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists
[[], [], []]
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists[0].append(3)
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists
[[3], [3], [3]]
</pre></div>
</div>
What has happened is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[[]]</code> is a one-element list containing an empty
list, so all three elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[[]] * 3</code> are references to this single empty
list. Modifying any of the elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">lists</code> modifies this single list.
You can create a list of different lists this way:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists[0].append(3)
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists[1].append(5)
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists[2].append(7)
&gt;&gt;&gt; lists
[[3], [5], [7]]
</pre></div>
</div>
Further explanation is available in the FAQ entry
<a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-multidimensional-list">How do I create a multidimensional list?</a>.
</li>
<li>If i or j is negative, the index is relative to the end of sequence s:
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s) + i</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s) + j</code> is substituted. But note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-0</code> is
still <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>.</li>
<li>The slice of s from i to j is defined as the sequence of items with index
k such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i &lt;= k &lt; j</code>. If i or j is greater than <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>, use
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>. If i is omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>. If j is omitted or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>. If i is greater than or equal to j, the slice is
empty.</li>
<li>The slice of s from i to j with step k is defined as the sequence of
items with index <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x = i + n*k</code> such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0 &lt;= n &lt; (j-i)/k</code>. In other words,
the indices are <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i+k</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i+2*k</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i+3*k</code> and so on, stopping when
j is reached (but never including j). When k is positive,
i and j are reduced to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code> if they are greater.
When k is negative, i and j are reduced to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s) - 1</code> if
they are greater. If i or j are omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, they become
“end” values (which end depends on the sign of k). Note, k cannot be zero.
If k is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, it is treated like <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code>.</li>
<li>Concatenating immutable sequences always results in a new object. This
means that building up a sequence by repeated concatenation will have a
quadratic runtime cost in the total sequence length. To get a linear
runtime cost, you must switch to one of the alternatives below:
<ul class="simple">
<li>if concatenating <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> objects, you can build a list and use
<a class="reference internal" href="#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.join()</code></a> at the end or else write to an <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">io.StringIO</code></a>
instance and retrieve its value when complete</li>
<li>if concatenating <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> objects, you can similarly use
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.join" title="bytes.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.join()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">io.BytesIO</code></a>, or you can do in-place
concatenation with a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a> object. <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>
objects are mutable and have an efficient overallocation mechanism</li>
<li>if concatenating <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> objects, extend a <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a> instead</li>
<li>for other types, investigate the relevant class documentation</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Some sequence types (such as <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a>) only support item sequences
that follow specific patterns, and hence don’t support sequence
concatenation or repetition.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">index</code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> when x is not found in s.
Not all implementations support passing the additional arguments i and j.
These arguments allow efficient searching of subsections of the sequence. Passing
the extra arguments is roughly equivalent to using <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j].index(x)</code>, only
without copying any data and with the returned index being relative to
the start of the sequence rather than the start of the slice.</li>
</ol>
</section>
<section id="immutable-sequence-types">
<h3>Immutable Sequence Types<a class="headerlink" href="#immutable-sequence-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The only operation that immutable sequence types generally implement that is
not also implemented by mutable sequence types is support for the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">hash()</code></a>
built-in.
This support allows immutable sequences, such as <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> instances, to
be used as <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> keys and stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>
instances.
Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values will
result in <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a>.
</section>
<section id="mutable-sequence-types">
<h3>Mutable Sequence Types<a class="headerlink" href="#mutable-sequence-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The operations in the following table are defined on mutable sequence types.
The <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.MutableSequence</code></a> ABC is provided to make it
easier to correctly implement these operations on custom sequence types.
In the table s is an instance of a mutable sequence type, t is any
iterable object and x is an arbitrary object that meets any type
and value restrictions imposed by s (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a> only
accepts integers that meet the value restriction <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0 &lt;= x &lt;= 255</code>).
<table class="docutils align-default" id="index-24">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Operation</th>
<th class="head">Result</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i] = x</code></td>
<td>item i of s is replaced by
x</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j] = t</code></td>
<td>slice of s from i to j
is replaced by the contents of
the iterable t</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">del s[i:j]</code></td>
<td>same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j] = []</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j:k] = t</code></td>
<td>the elements of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j:k]</code>
are replaced by those of t</td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">del s[i:j:k]</code></td>
<td>removes the elements of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:j:k]</code> from the list</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.append(x)</code></td>
<td>appends x to the end of the
sequence (same as
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]</code>)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.clear()</code></td>
<td>removes all items from s
(same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">del s[:]</code>)</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.copy()</code></td>
<td>creates a shallow copy of s
(same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[:]</code>)</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.extend(t)</code> or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">s += t</code></td>
<td>extends s with the
contents of t (for the
most part the same as
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[len(s):len(s)] = t</code>)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s *= n</code></td>
<td>updates s with its contents
repeated n times</td>
<td>(6)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.insert(i, x)</code></td>
<td>inserts x into s at the
index given by i
(same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i:i] = [x]</code>)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.pop()</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.pop(i)</code></td>
<td>retrieves the item at i and
also removes it from s</td>
<td>(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.remove(x)</code></td>
<td>remove the first item from s
where <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[i]</code> is equal to x</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.reverse()</code></td>
<td>reverses the items of s in
place</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Notes:
<ol class="arabic">
<li>t must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.</li>
<li>The optional argument i defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, so that by default the last
item is removed and returned.</li>
<li><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">remove()</code> raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> when x is not found in s.</li>
<li>The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">reverse()</code> method modifies the sequence in place for economy of
space when reversing a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by
side effect, it does not return the reversed sequence.</li>
<li><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">clear()</code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">copy()</code> are included for consistency with the
interfaces of mutable containers that don’t support slicing operations
(such as <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a>). <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">copy()</code> is not part of the
<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.MutableSequence</code></a> ABC, but most concrete
mutable sequence classes provide it.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3: <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">clear()</code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">copy()</code> methods.
</div>
</li>
<li>The value n is an integer, or an object implementing
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__index__()</code></a>. Zero and negative values of n clear
the sequence. Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced
multiple times, as explained for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s * n</code> under <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common">Common Sequence Operations</a>.</li>
</ol>
</section>
<section id="lists">
<h3>Lists<a class="headerlink" href="#lists" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by
application).
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="list">
class list([iterable])<a class="headerlink" href="#list" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Lists may be constructed in several ways:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Using a pair of square brackets to denote the empty list: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[]</code></li>
<li>Using square brackets, separating items with commas: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[a]</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[a, b, c]</code></li>
<li>Using a list comprehension: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[x for x in iterable]</code></li>
<li>Using the type constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list()</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list(iterable)</code></li>
</ul>
The constructor builds a list whose items are the same and in the same
order as iterable’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a
container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable
is already a list, a copy is made and returned, similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">iterable[:]</code>.
For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list('abc')</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">['a', 'b', 'c']</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">list( (1, 2, 3) )</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[1, 2, 3]</code>.
If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty list, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[]</code>.
Many other operations also produce lists, including the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sorted()</code></a>
built-in.
Lists implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common">common</a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-mutable">mutable</a> sequence operations. Lists also provide the
following additional method:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="list.sort">
sort(*, key=None, reverse=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#list.sort" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This method sorts the list in place, using only <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;</code> comparisons
between items. Exceptions are not suppressed - if any comparison operations
fail, the entire sort operation will fail (and the list will likely be left
in a partially modified state).
<a class="reference internal" href="#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">sort()</code></a> accepts two arguments that can only be passed by keyword
(<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#keyword-only-parameter">keyword-only arguments</a>):
key specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a
comparison key from each list element (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">key=str.lower</code>).
The key corresponding to each item in the list is calculated once and
then used for the entire sorting process. The default value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>
means that list items are sorted directly without calculating a separate
key value.
The <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.cmp_to_key()</code></a> utility is available to convert a 2.x
style cmp function to a key function.
reverse is a boolean value. If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code>, then the list elements
are sorted as if each comparison were reversed.
This method modifies the sequence in place for economy of space when
sorting a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side
effect, it does not return the sorted sequence (use <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sorted()</code></a> to
explicitly request a new sorted list instance).
The <a class="reference internal" href="#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">sort()</code></a> method is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is stable if it
guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that compare equal
— this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for example, sort by
department, then by salary grade).
For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto">Sorting Techniques</a>.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: While a list is being sorted, the effect of attempting to mutate, or even
inspect, the list is undefined. The C implementation of Python makes the
list appear empty for the duration, and raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> if it can
detect that the list has been mutated during a sort.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="tuples">
<h3>Tuples<a class="headerlink" href="#tuples" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Tuples are immutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
heterogeneous data (such as the 2-tuples produced by the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">enumerate()</code></a>
built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of
homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> instance).
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="tuple">
class tuple([iterable])<a class="headerlink" href="#tuple" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Using a pair of parentheses to denote the empty tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">()</code></li>
<li>Using a trailing comma for a singleton tuple: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a,</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(a,)</code></li>
<li>Separating items with commas: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a, b, c</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(a, b, c)</code></li>
<li>Using the <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">tuple()</code></a> built-in: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">tuple()</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">tuple(iterable)</code></li>
</ul>
The constructor builds a tuple whose items are the same and in the same
order as iterable’s items. iterable may be either a sequence, a
container that supports iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable
is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged. For example,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">tuple('abc')</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">('a', 'b', 'c')</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">tuple( [1, 2, 3] )</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(1, 2, 3)</code>.
If no argument is given, the constructor creates a new empty tuple, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">()</code>.
Note that it is actually the comma which makes a tuple, not the parentheses.
The parentheses are optional, except in the empty tuple case, or
when they are needed to avoid syntactic ambiguity. For example,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">f(a, b, c)</code> is a function call with three arguments, while
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">f((a, b, c))</code> is a function call with a 3-tuple as the sole argument.
Tuples implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common">common</a> sequence
operations.
</dd></dl>

For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than
access by index, <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.namedtuple" title="collections.namedtuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">collections.namedtuple()</code></a> may be a more appropriate
choice than a simple tuple object.
</section>
<section id="ranges">
<h3>Ranges<a class="headerlink" href="#ranges" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a> type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is
commonly used for looping a specific number of times in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">for</code></a>
loops.
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="range">
class range(stop)<a class="headerlink" href="#range" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class range(start, stop[, step])</dt>
<dd>The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> or any object that implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__index__" title="object.__index__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__index__()</code></a> special
method). If the step argument is omitted, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code>.
If the start argument is omitted, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>.
If step is zero, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> is raised.
For a positive step, the contents of a range <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r</code> are determined by the
formula <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r[i] = start + step*i</code> where <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i &gt;= 0</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">r[i] &lt; stop</code>.
For a negative step, the contents of the range are still determined by
the formula <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r[i] = start + step*i</code>, but the constraints are <code class="docutils literal notranslate">i &gt;= 0</code>
and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r[i] &gt; stop</code>.
A range object will be empty if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r[0]</code> does not meet the value
constraint. Ranges do support negative indices, but these are interpreted
as indexing from the end of the sequence determined by the positive
indices.
Ranges containing absolute values larger than <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.maxsize</code></a> are
permitted but some features (such as <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">len()</code></a>) may raise
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#OverflowError" title="OverflowError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">OverflowError</code></a>.
Range examples:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(10))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(1, 11))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(0, 30, 5))
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(0, 10, 3))
[0, 3, 6, 9]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(0, -10, -1))
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(0))
[]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(range(1, 0))
[]
</pre></div>
</div>
Ranges implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common">common</a> sequence operations
except concatenation and repetition (due to the fact that range objects can
only represent sequences that follow a strict pattern and repetition and
concatenation will usually violate that pattern).
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="range.start">
start<a class="headerlink" href="#range.start" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The value of the start parameter (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code> if the parameter was
not supplied)
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="range.stop">
stop<a class="headerlink" href="#range.stop" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The value of the stop parameter
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="range.step">
step<a class="headerlink" href="#range.step" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The value of the step parameter (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code> if the parameter was
not supplied)
</dd></dl>

</dd></dl>

The advantage of the <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a> type over a regular <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> is that a <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a> object will always take the same
(small) amount of memory, no matter the size of the range it represents (as it
only stores the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">start</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">stop</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">step</code> values, calculating individual
items and subranges as needed).
Range objects implement the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Sequence</code></a> ABC, and provide
features such as containment tests, element index lookup, slicing and
support for negative indices (see <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq">Sequence Types — list, tuple, range</a>):
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; r = range(0, 20, 2)
&gt;&gt;&gt; r
range(0, 20, 2)
&gt;&gt;&gt; 11 in r
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; 10 in r
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; r.index(10)
5
&gt;&gt;&gt; r[5]
10
&gt;&gt;&gt; r[:5]
range(0, 10, 2)
&gt;&gt;&gt; r[-1]
18
</pre></div>
</div>
Testing range objects for equality with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">==</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">!=</code> compares
them as sequences. That is, two range objects are considered equal if
they represent the same sequence of values. (Note that two range
objects that compare equal might have different <a class="reference internal" href="#range.start" title="range.start"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">start</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#range.stop" title="range.stop"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">stop</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#range.step" title="range.step"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">step</code></a> attributes, for example
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">range(0) == range(2, 1, 3)</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)</code>.)
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.2: Implement the Sequence ABC.
Support slicing and negative indices.
Test <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> objects for membership in constant time instead of
iterating through all items.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Define ‘==’ and ‘!=’ to compare range objects based on the
sequence of values they define (instead of comparing based on
object identity).
Added the <a class="reference internal" href="#range.start" title="range.start"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">start</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#range.stop" title="range.stop"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">stop</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#range.step" title="range.step"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">step</code></a>
attributes.
</div>
<div class="admonition seealso">
See also
<ul class="simple">
<li>The <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000/">linspace recipe</a>
shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating
point applications.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section id="text-sequence-type-str">
<h2>Text Sequence Type — <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#text-sequence-type-str" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
Textual data in Python is handled with <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> objects, or strings.
Strings are immutable
<a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq">sequences</a> of Unicode code points. String literals are
written in a variety of ways:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Single quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'allows embedded &quot;double&quot; quotes'</code></li>
<li>Double quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;allows embedded 'single' quotes&quot;</code></li>
<li>Triple quoted: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'''Three single quotes'''</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;&quot;&quot;Three double quotes&quot;&quot;&quot;</code></li>
</ul>
Triple quoted strings may span multiple lines - all associated whitespace will
be included in the string literal.
String literals that are part of a single expression and have only whitespace
between them will be implicitly converted to a single string literal. That
is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(&quot;spam &quot; &quot;eggs&quot;) == &quot;spam eggs&quot;</code>.
See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#strings">String and Bytes literals</a> for more about the various forms of string literal,
including supported <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#escape-sequences">escape sequences</a>, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r</code> (“raw”) prefix that
disables most escape sequence processing.
Strings may also be created from other objects using the <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a>
constructor.
Since there is no separate “character” type, indexing a string produces
strings of length 1. That is, for a non-empty string s, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[0] == s[0:1]</code>.
There is also no mutable string type, but <a class="reference internal" href="#str.join" title="str.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.join()</code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">io.StringIO</code></a> can be used to efficiently construct strings from
multiple fragments.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: For backwards compatibility with the Python 2 series, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">u</code> prefix is
once again permitted on string literals. It has no effect on the meaning
of string literals and cannot be combined with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r</code> prefix.
</div>
<dl class="py class" id="index-30">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str">
class str(object='')<a class="headerlink" href="#str" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')</dt>
<dd>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="#textseq">string</a> version of object. If object is not
provided, returns the empty string. Otherwise, the behavior of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str()</code>
depends on whether encoding or errors is given, as follows.
If neither encoding nor errors is given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str(object)</code> returns
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">type(object).__str__(object)</code></a>,
which is the “informal” or nicely
printable string representation of object. For string objects, this is
the string itself. If object does not have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__str__" title="object.__str__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__str__()</code></a>
method, then <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a> falls back to returning
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">repr(object)</code></a>.
If at least one of encoding or errors is given, object should be a
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>). In
this case, if object is a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> (or <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>) object,
then <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str(bytes, encoding, errors)</code> is equivalent to
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.decode(encoding, errors)</code></a>. Otherwise, the bytes
object underlying the buffer object is obtained before calling
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.decode" title="bytes.decode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.decode()</code></a>. See <a class="reference internal" href="#binaryseq">Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview</a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects">Buffer Protocol</a> for information on buffer objects.
Passing a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> object to <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a> without the encoding
or errors arguments falls under the first case of returning the informal
string representation (see also the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-b"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">-b</code></a> command-line option to
Python). For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; str(b&#39;Zoot!&#39;)
&quot;b&#39;Zoot!&#39;&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
For more information on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str</code> class and its methods, see
<a class="reference internal" href="#textseq">Text Sequence Type — str</a> and the <a class="reference internal" href="#string-methods">String Methods</a> section below. To output
formatted strings, see the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings">f-strings</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatstrings">Format String Syntax</a>
sections. In addition, see the <a class="reference internal" href="text.html#stringservices">Text Processing Services</a> section.
</dd></dl>

<section id="string-methods">
<h3>String Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#string-methods" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Strings implement all of the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common">common</a> sequence
operations, along with the additional methods described below.
Strings also support two styles of string formatting, one providing a large
degree of flexibility and customization (see <a class="reference internal" href="#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.format()</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatstrings">Format String Syntax</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string-formatting">Custom String Formatting</a>) and the other based on C
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code> style formatting that handles a narrower range of types and is
slightly harder to use correctly, but is often faster for the cases it can
handle (<a class="reference internal" href="#old-string-formatting">printf-style String Formatting</a>).
The <a class="reference internal" href="text.html#textservices">Text Processing Services</a> section of the standard library covers a number of
other modules that provide various text related utilities (including regular
expression support in the <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">re</code></a> module).
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.capitalize">
str.capitalize()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.capitalize" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with its first character capitalized and the
rest lowercased.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: The first character is now put into titlecase rather than uppercase.
This means that characters like digraphs will only have their first
letter capitalized, instead of the full character.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.casefold">
str.casefold()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.casefold" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a casefolded copy of the string. Casefolded strings may be used for
caseless matching.
Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because it is
intended to remove all case distinctions in a string. For example, the German
lowercase letter <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'ß'</code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;ss&quot;</code>. Since it is already
lowercase, <a class="reference internal" href="#str.lower" title="str.lower"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">lower()</code></a> would do nothing to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'ß'</code>; <a class="reference internal" href="#str.casefold" title="str.casefold"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">casefold()</code></a>
converts it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;ss&quot;</code>.
The casefolding algorithm is
<a class="reference external" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf">described in section 3.13 ‘Default Case Folding’ of the Unicode Standard</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.center">
str.center(width[, fillchar])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.center" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return centered in a string of length width. Padding is done using the
specified fillchar (default is an ASCII space). The original string is
returned if width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.count">
str.count(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.count" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in the
range [start, end]. Optional arguments start and end are
interpreted as in slice notation.
If sub is empty, returns the number of empty strings between characters
which is the length of the string plus one.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.encode">
str.encode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')<a class="headerlink" href="#str.encode" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the string encoded to <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>.
encoding defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'utf-8'</code>;
see <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#standard-encodings">Standard Encodings</a> for possible values.
errors controls how encoding errors are handled.
If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'strict'</code> (the default), a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">UnicodeError</code></a> exception is raised.
Other possible values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'ignore'</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'replace'</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'xmlcharrefreplace'</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'backslashreplace'</code> and any
other name registered via <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">codecs.register_error()</code></a>.
See <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#error-handlers">Error Handlers</a> for details.
For performance reasons, the value of errors is not checked for validity
unless an encoding error actually occurs,
<a class="reference internal" href="devmode.html#devmode">Python Development Mode</a> is enabled
or a <a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#debug-build">debug build</a> is used.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.1: Added support for keyword arguments.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.9: The value of the errors argument is now checked in <a class="reference internal" href="devmode.html#devmode">Python Development Mode</a> and
in <a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#debug-build">debug mode</a>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.endswith">
str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.endswith" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>. suffix can also be a tuple of suffixes to look for. With optional
start, test beginning at that position. With optional end, stop comparing
at that position.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.expandtabs">
str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.expandtabs" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced by one or
more spaces, depending on the current column and the given tab size. Tab
positions occur every tabsize characters (default is 8, giving tab
positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on). To expand the string, the current
column is set to zero and the string is examined character by character. If
the character is a tab (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">\t</code>), one or more space characters are inserted
in the result until the current column is equal to the next tab position.
(The tab character itself is not copied.) If the character is a newline
(<code class="docutils literal notranslate">\n</code>) or return (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">\r</code>), it is copied and the current column is reset to
zero. Any other character is copied unchanged and the current column is
incremented by one regardless of how the character is represented when
printed.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;01\t012\t0123\t01234&#39;.expandtabs()
&#39;01 012 0123 01234&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;01\t012\t0123\t01234&#39;.expandtabs(4)
&#39;01 012 0123 01234&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.find">
str.find(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.find" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the lowest index in the string where substring sub is found within
the slice <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[start:end]</code>. Optional arguments start and end are
interpreted as in slice notation. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code> if sub is not found.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The <a class="reference internal" href="#str.find" title="str.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">find()</code></a> method should be used only if you need to know the
position of sub. To check if sub is a substring or not, use the
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">in</code></a> operator:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Py&#39; in &#39;Python&#39;
True
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.format">
str.format(*args, **kwargs)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.format" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Perform a string formatting operation. The string on which this method is
called can contain literal text or replacement fields delimited by braces
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">{}</code>. Each replacement field contains either the numeric index of a
positional argument, or the name of a keyword argument. Returns a copy of
the string where each replacement field is replaced with the string value of
the corresponding argument.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}&quot;.format(1+2)
&#39;The sum of 1 + 2 is 3&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
See <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatstrings">Format String Syntax</a> for a description of the various formatting options
that can be specified in format strings.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
When formatting a number (<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">complex</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">decimal.Decimal</code></a> and subclasses) with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">n</code> type
(ex: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'{:n}'.format(1234)</code>), the function temporarily sets the
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">LC_CTYPE</code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LC_NUMERIC</code> locale to decode
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">decimal_point</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">thousands_sep</code> fields of <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">localeconv()</code> if
they are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LC_NUMERIC</code> locale is
different than the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LC_CTYPE</code> locale. This temporary change affects
other threads.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: When formatting a number with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">n</code> type, the function sets
temporarily the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LC_CTYPE</code> locale to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LC_NUMERIC</code> locale in some
cases.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.format_map">
str.format_map(mapping)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.format_map" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str.format(**mapping)</code>, except that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">mapping</code> is
used directly and not copied to a <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>. This is useful
if for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate">mapping</code> is a dict subclass:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; class Default(dict):
... def __missing__(self, key):
... return key
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;{name} was born in {country}&#39;.format_map(Default(name=&#39;Guido&#39;))
&#39;Guido was born in country&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.index">
str.index(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.index" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#str.find" title="str.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">find()</code></a>, but raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> when the substring is
not found.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isalnum">
str.isalnum()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isalnum" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at
least one character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. A character <code class="docutils literal notranslate">c</code> is alphanumeric if one
of the following returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.isalpha()</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.isdecimal()</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.isdigit()</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.isnumeric()</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isalpha">
str.isalpha()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isalpha" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least
one character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. Alphabetic characters are those characters defined
in the Unicode character database as “Letter”, i.e., those with general category
property being one of “Lm”, “Lt”, “Lu”, “Ll”, or “Lo”. Note that this is different
from the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf">Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10 ‘Letters, Alphabetic, and
Ideographic’ of the Unicode Standard</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isascii">
str.isascii()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isascii" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the string is empty or all characters in the string are ASCII,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
ASCII characters have code points in the range U+0000-U+007F.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.7.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isdecimal">
str.isdecimal()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isdecimal" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all characters in the string are decimal
characters and there is at least one character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>
otherwise. Decimal characters are those that can be used to form
numbers in base 10, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT
ZERO. Formally a decimal character is a character in the Unicode
General Category “Nd”.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isdigit">
str.isdigit()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isdigit" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one
character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. Digits include decimal characters and digits that need
special handling, such as the compatibility superscript digits.
This covers digits which cannot be used to form numbers in base 10,
like the Kharosthi numbers. Formally, a digit is a character that has the
property value Numeric_Type=Digit or Numeric_Type=Decimal.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isidentifier">
str.isidentifier()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isidentifier" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the string is a valid identifier according to the language
definition, section <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#identifiers">Identifiers and keywords</a>.
<a class="reference internal" href="keyword.html#keyword.iskeyword" title="keyword.iskeyword"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">keyword.iskeyword()</code></a> can be used to test whether string <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s</code> is a reserved
identifier, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#def"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">def</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">class</code></a>.
Example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from keyword import iskeyword

&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;hello&#39;.isidentifier(), iskeyword(&#39;hello&#39;)
(True, False)
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;def&#39;.isidentifier(), iskeyword(&#39;def&#39;)
(True, True)
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.islower">
str.islower()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.islower" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id6" role="doc-noteref">[4]</a> in the string are lowercase and
there is at least one cased character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isnumeric">
str.isnumeric()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isnumeric" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all characters in the string are numeric
characters, and there is at least one character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>
otherwise. Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters
that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155,
VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH. Formally, numeric characters are those with the property
value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or Numeric_Type=Numeric.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isprintable">
str.isprintable()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isprintable" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all characters in the string are printable or the string is
empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. Nonprintable characters are those characters defined
in the Unicode character database as “Other” or “Separator”, excepting the
ASCII space (0x20) which is considered printable. (Note that printable
characters in this context are those which should not be escaped when
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">repr()</code></a> is invoked on a string. It has no bearing on the handling of
strings written to <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.stdout</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.stderr</code></a>.)
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isspace">
str.isspace()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isspace" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is
at least one character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
A character is whitespace if in the Unicode character database
(see <a class="reference internal" href="unicodedata.html#module-unicodedata" title="unicodedata: Access the Unicode Database."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">unicodedata</code></a>), either its general category is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Zs</code>
(“Separator, space”), or its bidirectional class is one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">WS</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">B</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">S</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.istitle">
str.istitle()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.istitle" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the string is a titlecased string and there is at least one
character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters
and lowercase characters only cased ones. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.isupper">
str.isupper()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.isupper" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id7" role="doc-noteref">[4]</a> in the string are uppercase and
there is at least one cased character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;BANANA&#39;.isupper()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;banana&#39;.isupper()
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;baNana&#39;.isupper()
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39; &#39;.isupper()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method" id="meth-str-join">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.join">
str.join(iterable)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.join" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in iterable.
A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> will be raised if there are any non-string values in
iterable, including <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> objects. The separator between
elements is the string providing this method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.ljust">
str.ljust(width[, fillchar])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.ljust" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is
done using the specified fillchar (default is an ASCII space). The
original string is returned if width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.lower">
str.lower()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.lower" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id8" role="doc-noteref">[4]</a> converted to
lowercase.
The lowercasing algorithm used is
<a class="reference external" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf">described in section 3.13 ‘Default Case Folding’ of the Unicode Standard</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.lstrip">
str.lstrip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.lstrip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed. The chars
argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted
or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace. The chars
argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39; spacious &#39;.lstrip()
&#39;spacious &#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;www.example.com&#39;.lstrip(&#39;cmowz.&#39;)
&#39;example.com&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
See <a class="reference internal" href="#str.removeprefix" title="str.removeprefix"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.removeprefix()</code></a> for a method that will remove a single prefix
string rather than all of a set of characters. For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Arthur: three!&#39;.lstrip(&#39;Arthur: &#39;)
&#39;ee!&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Arthur: three!&#39;.removeprefix(&#39;Arthur: &#39;)
&#39;three!&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.maketrans">
static str.maketrans(x[, y[, z]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.maketrans" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This static method returns a translation table usable for <a class="reference internal" href="#str.translate" title="str.translate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.translate()</code></a>.
If there is only one argument, it must be a dictionary mapping Unicode
ordinals (integers) or characters (strings of length 1) to Unicode ordinals,
strings (of arbitrary lengths) or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. Character keys will then be
converted to ordinals.
If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length, and in the
resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped to the character at
the same position in y. If there is a third argument, it must be a string,
whose characters will be mapped to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> in the result.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.partition">
str.partition(sep)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.partition" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Split the string at the first occurrence of sep, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
after the separator. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.removeprefix">
str.removeprefix(prefix, /)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.removeprefix" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If the string starts with the prefix string, return
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">string[len(prefix):]</code>. Otherwise, return a copy of the original
string:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;TestHook&#39;.removeprefix(&#39;Test&#39;)
&#39;Hook&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;BaseTestCase&#39;.removeprefix(&#39;Test&#39;)
&#39;BaseTestCase&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.removesuffix">
str.removesuffix(suffix, /)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.removesuffix" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If the string ends with the suffix string and that suffix is not empty,
return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">string[:-len(suffix)]</code>. Otherwise, return a copy of the
original string:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;MiscTests&#39;.removesuffix(&#39;Tests&#39;)
&#39;Misc&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;TmpDirMixin&#39;.removesuffix(&#39;Tests&#39;)
&#39;TmpDirMixin&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.replace">
str.replace(old, new[, count])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.replace" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by
new. If the optional argument count is given, only the first count
occurrences are replaced.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.rfind">
str.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.rfind" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such
that sub is contained within <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[start:end]</code>. Optional arguments start
and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code> on failure.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.rindex">
str.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.rindex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#str.rfind" title="str.rfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">rfind()</code></a> but raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> when the substring sub is not
found.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.rjust">
str.rjust(width[, fillchar])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.rjust" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is
done using the specified fillchar (default is an ASCII space). The
original string is returned if width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.rpartition">
str.rpartition(sep)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.rpartition" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Split the string at the last occurrence of sep, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
after the separator. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
two empty strings, followed by the string itself.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.rsplit">
str.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.rsplit" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter string.
If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits are done, the rightmost
ones. If sep is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, any whitespace string is a
separator. Except for splitting from the right, <a class="reference internal" href="#str.rsplit" title="str.rsplit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">rsplit()</code></a> behaves like
<a class="reference internal" href="#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">split()</code></a> which is described in detail below.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.rstrip">
str.rstrip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.rstrip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed. The chars
argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted
or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace. The chars
argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39; spacious &#39;.rstrip()
&#39; spacious&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;mississippi&#39;.rstrip(&#39;ipz&#39;)
&#39;mississ&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
See <a class="reference internal" href="#str.removesuffix" title="str.removesuffix"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.removesuffix()</code></a> for a method that will remove a single suffix
string rather than all of a set of characters. For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Monty Python&#39;.rstrip(&#39; Python&#39;)
&#39;M&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Monty Python&#39;.removesuffix(&#39; Python&#39;)
&#39;Monty&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.split">
str.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.split" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter
string. If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits are done (thus,
the list will have at most <code class="docutils literal notranslate">maxsplit+1</code> elements). If maxsplit is not
specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, then there is no limit on the number of splits
(all possible splits are made).
If sep is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
deemed to delimit empty strings (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'1,,2'.split(',')</code> returns
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">['1', '', '2']</code>). The sep argument may consist of multiple characters
(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'1&lt;&gt;2&lt;&gt;3'.split('&lt;&gt;')</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">['1', '2', '3']</code>).
Splitting an empty string with a specified separator returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">['']</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;1,2,3&#39;.split(&#39;,&#39;)
[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;1,2,3&#39;.split(&#39;,&#39;, maxsplit=1)
[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2,3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;1,2,,3,&#39;.split(&#39;,&#39;)
[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;3&#39;, &#39;&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
If sep is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, a different splitting algorithm is
applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded as a single separator,
and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or end if the
string has leading or trailing whitespace. Consequently, splitting an empty
string or a string consisting of just whitespace with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> separator
returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[]</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;1 2 3&#39;.split()
[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;1 2 3&#39;.split(maxsplit=1)
[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2 3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39; 1 2 3 &#39;.split()
[&#39;1&#39;, &#39;2&#39;, &#39;3&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method" id="index-34">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.splitlines">
str.splitlines(keepends=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.splitlines" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of the lines in the string, breaking at line boundaries. Line
breaks are not included in the resulting list unless keepends is given and
true.
This method splits on the following line boundaries. In particular, the
boundaries are a superset of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines">universal newlines</a>.
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Representation</th>
<th class="head">Description</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\n</code></td>
<td>Line Feed</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\r</code></td>
<td>Carriage Return</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\r\n</code></td>
<td>Carriage Return + Line Feed</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\v</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">\x0b</code></td>
<td>Line Tabulation</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\f</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">\x0c</code></td>
<td>Form Feed</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\x1c</code></td>
<td>File Separator</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\x1d</code></td>
<td>Group Separator</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\x1e</code></td>
<td>Record Separator</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\x85</code></td>
<td>Next Line (C1 Control Code)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\u2028</code></td>
<td>Line Separator</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">\u2029</code></td>
<td>Paragraph Separator</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.2: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">\v</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">\f</code> added to list of line boundaries.
</div>
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n&#39;.splitlines()
[&#39;ab c&#39;, &#39;&#39;, &#39;de fg&#39;, &#39;kl&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n&#39;.splitlines(keepends=True)
[&#39;ab c\n&#39;, &#39;\n&#39;, &#39;de fg\r&#39;, &#39;kl\r\n&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#str.split" title="str.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">split()</code></a> when a delimiter string sep is given, this
method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a terminal line
break does not result in an extra line:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;&quot;.splitlines()
[]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;One line\n&quot;.splitlines()
[&#39;One line&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
For comparison, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">split('\n')</code> gives:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;&#39;.split(&#39;\n&#39;)
[&#39;&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Two lines\n&#39;.split(&#39;\n&#39;)
[&#39;Two lines&#39;, &#39;&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.startswith">
str.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.startswith" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if string starts with the prefix, otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
prefix can also be a tuple of prefixes to look for. With optional start,
test string beginning at that position. With optional end, stop comparing
string at that position.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.strip">
str.strip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#str.strip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed.
The chars argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.
If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace.
The chars argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its
values are stripped:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39; spacious &#39;.strip()
&#39;spacious&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;www.example.com&#39;.strip(&#39;cmowz.&#39;)
&#39;example&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The outermost leading and trailing chars argument values are stripped
from the string. Characters are removed from the leading end until
reaching a string character that is not contained in the set of
characters in chars. A similar action takes place on the trailing end.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; comment_string = &#39;#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; comment_string.strip(&#39;.#! &#39;)
&#39;Section 3.2.1 Issue #32&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.swapcase">
str.swapcase()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.swapcase" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
vice versa. Note that it is not necessarily true that
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.swapcase().swapcase() == s</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.title">
str.title()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.title" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a titlecased version of the string where words start with an uppercase
character and the remaining characters are lowercase.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &#39;Hello world&#39;.title()
&#39;Hello World&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a word as
groups of consecutive letters. The definition works in many contexts but
it means that apostrophes in contractions and possessives form word
boundaries, which may not be the desired result:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends from the UK&quot;.title()
&quot;They&#39;Re Bill&#39;S Friends From The Uk&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
The <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#string.capwords" title="string.capwords"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">string.capwords()</code></a> function does not have this problem, as it
splits words on spaces only.
Alternatively, a workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular
expressions:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import re
&gt;&gt;&gt; def titlecase(s):
... return re.sub(r&quot;[A-Za-z]+(&#39;[A-Za-z]+)?&quot;,
... lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
... s)
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; titlecase(&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends.&quot;)
&quot;They&#39;re Bill&#39;s Friends.&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.translate">
str.translate(table)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.translate" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped through
the given translation table. The table must be an object that implements
indexing via <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getitem__()</code></a>, typically a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping">mapping</a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-sequence">sequence</a>. When indexed by a Unicode ordinal (an integer), the
table object can do any of the following: return a Unicode ordinal or a
string, to map the character to one or more other characters; return
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, to delete the character from the return string; or raise a
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#LookupError" title="LookupError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">LookupError</code></a> exception, to map the character to itself.
You can use <a class="reference internal" href="#str.maketrans" title="str.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.maketrans()</code></a> to create a translation map from
character-to-character mappings in different formats.
See also the <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">codecs</code></a> module for a more flexible approach to custom
character mappings.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.upper">
str.upper()<a class="headerlink" href="#str.upper" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id15" id="id9" role="doc-noteref">[4]</a> converted to
uppercase. Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s.upper().isupper()</code> might be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s</code>
contains uncased characters or if the Unicode category of the resulting
character(s) is not “Lu” (Letter, uppercase), but e.g. “Lt” (Letter,
titlecase).
The uppercasing algorithm used is
<a class="reference external" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf">described in section 3.13 ‘Default Case Folding’ of the Unicode Standard</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str.zfill">
str.zfill(width)<a class="headerlink" href="#str.zfill" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the string left filled with ASCII <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0'</code> digits to
make a string of length width. A leading sign prefix (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'+'</code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'-'</code>)
is handled by inserting the padding after the sign character rather
than before. The original string is returned if width is less than
or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;42&quot;.zfill(5)
&#39;00042&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; &quot;-42&quot;.zfill(5)
&#39;-0042&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="printf-style-string-formatting">
<h3><code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code>-style String Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#printf-style-string-formatting" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
<div class="admonition note" id="index-35">
Note
The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that
lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and
dictionaries correctly). Using the newer <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings">formatted string literals</a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">str.format()</code></a> interface, or <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#template-strings">template strings</a> may help avoid these errors. Each of these
alternatives provides their own trade-offs and benefits of simplicity,
flexibility, and/or extensibility.
</div>
String objects have one unique built-in operation: the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%</code> operator (modulo).
This is also known as the string formatting or interpolation operator.
Given <code class="docutils literal notranslate">format % values</code> (where format is a string), <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%</code> conversion
specifications in format are replaced with zero or more elements of values.
The effect is similar to using the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">sprintf()</code> in the C language.
If format requires a single argument, values may be a single non-tuple
object. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id16" id="id10" role="doc-noteref">[5]</a> Otherwise, values must be a tuple with exactly the number of
items specified by the format string, or a single mapping object (for example, a
dictionary).
A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following
components, which must occur in this order:
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code> character, which marks the start of the specifier.</li>
<li>Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of characters
(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(somename)</code>).</li>
<li>Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion
types.</li>
<li>Minimum field width (optional). If specified as an <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'*'</code> (asterisk), the
actual width is read from the next element of the tuple in values, and the
object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.</li>
<li>Precision (optional), given as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'.'</code> (dot) followed by the precision. If
specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'*'</code> (an asterisk), the actual precision is read from the next
element of the tuple in values, and the value to convert comes after the
precision.</li>
<li>Length modifier (optional).</li>
<li>Conversion type.</li>
</ol>
When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then the
formats in the string must include a parenthesised mapping key into that
dictionary inserted immediately after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code> character. The mapping key
selects the value to be formatted from the mapping. For example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; print(&#39;%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.&#39; %
... {&#39;language&#39;: &quot;Python&quot;, &quot;number&quot;: 2})
Python has 002 quote types.
</pre></div>
</div>
In this case no <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> specifiers may occur in a format (since they require a
sequential parameter list).
The conversion flag characters are:
<table class="docutils align-default" id="index-37">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Flag</th>
<th class="head">Meaning</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'#'</code></td>
<td>The value conversion will use the “alternate form” (where defined
below).</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0'</code></td>
<td>The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'-'</code></td>
<td>The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0'</code>
conversion if both are given).</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">' '</code></td>
<td>(a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
string) produced by a signed conversion.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'+'</code></td>
<td>A sign character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'+'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'-'</code>) will precede the conversion
(overrides a “space” flag).</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
A length modifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">h</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">l</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">L</code>) may be present, but is ignored as it
is not necessary for Python – so e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%ld</code> is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%d</code>.
The conversion types are:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Conversion</th>
<th class="head">Meaning</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'d'</code></td>
<td>Signed integer decimal.</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'i'</code></td>
<td>Signed integer decimal.</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'o'</code></td>
<td>Signed octal value.</td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'u'</code></td>
<td>Obsolete type – it is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'d'</code>.</td>
<td>(6)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'x'</code></td>
<td>Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).</td>
<td>(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'X'</code></td>
<td>Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).</td>
<td>(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'e'</code></td>
<td>Floating point exponential format (lowercase).</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'E'</code></td>
<td>Floating point exponential format (uppercase).</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'f'</code></td>
<td>Floating point decimal format.</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'F'</code></td>
<td>Floating point decimal format.</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'g'</code></td>
<td>Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential
format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
precision, decimal format otherwise.</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'G'</code></td>
<td>Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential
format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
precision, decimal format otherwise.</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'c'</code></td>
<td>Single character (accepts integer or single
character string).</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code></td>
<td>String (converts any Python object using
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">repr()</code></a>).</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'s'</code></td>
<td>String (converts any Python object using
<a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a>).</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a'</code></td>
<td>String (converts any Python object using
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#ascii" title="ascii"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ascii()</code></a>).</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code></td>
<td>No argument is converted, results in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code>
character in the result.</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Notes:
<ol class="arabic">
<li>The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0o'</code>) to be
inserted before the first digit.</li>
<li>The alternate form causes a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0x'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0X'</code> (depending on whether
the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'x'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'X'</code> format was used) to be inserted before the first digit.</li>
<li>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, even if
no digits follow it.
The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal point and
defaults to 6.
</li>
<li>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, and
trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise be.
The precision determines the number of significant digits before and after the
decimal point and defaults to 6.
</li>
<li>If precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">N</code>, the output is truncated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">N</code> characters.</li>
<li>See <a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/">PEP 237</a>.</li>
</ol>
Since Python strings have an explicit length, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%s</code> conversions do not assume
that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\0'</code> is the end of the string.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.1: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%f</code> conversions for numbers whose absolute value is over 1e50 are no
longer replaced by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%g</code> conversions.
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section id="binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">
<h2>Binary Sequence Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
The core built-in types for manipulating binary data are <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>. They are supported by <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a> which uses
the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects">buffer protocol</a> to access the memory of other
binary objects without needing to make a copy.
The <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#module-array" title="array: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">array</code></a> module supports efficient storage of basic data types like
32-bit integers and IEEE754 double-precision floating values.
<section id="bytes-objects">
<h3>Bytes Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Bytes objects are immutable sequences of single bytes. Since many major
binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects offer
several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII compatible
data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways.
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes">
class bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that for string
literals, except that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b</code> prefix is added:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Single quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'still allows embedded &quot;double&quot; quotes'</code></li>
<li>Double quotes: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b&quot;still allows embedded 'single' quotes&quot;</code></li>
<li>Triple quoted: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'''3 single quotes'''</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b&quot;&quot;&quot;3 double quotes&quot;&quot;&quot;</code></li>
</ul>
Only ASCII characters are permitted in bytes literals (regardless of the
declared source code encoding). Any binary values over 127 must be entered
into bytes literals using the appropriate escape sequence.
As with string literals, bytes literals may also use a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">r</code> prefix to disable
processing of escape sequences. See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#strings">String and Bytes literals</a> for more about the various
forms of bytes literal, including supported escape sequences.
While bytes literals and representations are based on ASCII text, bytes
objects actually behave like immutable sequences of integers, with each
value in the sequence restricted such that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0 &lt;= x &lt; 256</code> (attempts to
violate this restriction will trigger <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a>). This is done
deliberately to emphasise that while many binary formats include ASCII based
elements and can be usefully manipulated with some text-oriented algorithms,
this is not generally the case for arbitrary binary data (blindly applying
text processing algorithms to binary data formats that are not ASCII
compatible will usually lead to data corruption).
In addition to the literal forms, bytes objects can be created in a number of
other ways:
<ul class="simple">
<li>A zero-filled bytes object of a specified length: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes(10)</code></li>
<li>From an iterable of integers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes(range(20))</code></li>
<li>Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes(obj)</code></li>
</ul>
Also see the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#func-bytes">bytes</a> built-in.
Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal
numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
the bytes type has an additional class method to read data in that format:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.fromhex">
classmethod fromhex(string)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.fromhex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> class method returns a bytes object, decoding the
given string object. The string must contain two hexadecimal digits per
byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; bytes.fromhex(&#39;2Ef0 F1f2 &#39;)
b&#39;.\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.fromhex" title="bytes.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.fromhex()</code></a> now skips all ASCII whitespace in the string,
not just spaces.
</div>
</dd></dl>

A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytes object into its
hexadecimal representation.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.hex">
hex([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.hex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
byte in the instance.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;.hex()
&#39;f0f1f2&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
If you want to make the hex string easier to read, you can specify a
single character separator sep parameter to include in the output.
By default, this separator will be included between each byte.
A second optional bytes_per_sep parameter controls the spacing.
Positive values calculate the separator position from the right,
negative values from the left.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; value = b&#39;\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; value.hex(&#39;-&#39;)
&#39;f0-f1-f2&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; value.hex(&#39;_&#39;, 2)
&#39;f0_f1f2&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;UUDDLRLRAB&#39;.hex(&#39; &#39;, -4)
&#39;55554444 4c524c52 4142&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.hex" title="bytes.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.hex()</code></a> now supports optional sep and bytes_per_sep
parameters to insert separators between bytes in the hex output.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</dd></dl>

Since bytes objects are sequences of integers (akin to a tuple), for a bytes
object b, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b[0]</code> will be an integer, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b[0:1]</code> will be a bytes
object of length 1. (This contrasts with text strings, where both indexing
and slicing will produce a string of length 1)
The representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'...'</code>)
since it is often more useful than e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes([46, 46, 46])</code>. You can
always convert a bytes object into a list of integers using <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list(b)</code>.
</section>
<section id="bytearray-objects">
<h3>Bytearray Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a> objects are a mutable counterpart to <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>
objects.
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray">
class bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead
they are always created by calling the constructor:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Creating an empty instance: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray()</code></li>
<li>Creating a zero-filled instance with a given length: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray(10)</code></li>
<li>From an iterable of integers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray(range(20))</code></li>
<li>Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray(b'Hi!')</code></li>
</ul>
As bytearray objects are mutable, they support the
<a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-mutable">mutable</a> sequence operations in addition to the
common bytes and bytearray operations described in <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-methods">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</a>.
Also see the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#func-bytearray">bytearray</a> built-in.
Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte, hexadecimal
numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
the bytearray type has an additional class method to read data in that format:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.fromhex">
classmethod fromhex(string)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.fromhex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a> class method returns bytearray object, decoding
the given string object. The string must contain two hexadecimal digits
per byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; bytearray.fromhex(&#39;2Ef0 F1f2 &#39;)
bytearray(b&#39;.\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.fromhex" title="bytearray.fromhex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytearray.fromhex()</code></a> now skips all ASCII whitespace in the string,
not just spaces.
</div>
</dd></dl>

A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytearray object into its
hexadecimal representation.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.hex">
hex([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.hex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
byte in the instance.
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; bytearray(b&#39;\xf0\xf1\xf2&#39;).hex()
&#39;f0f1f2&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.hex" title="bytes.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.hex()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.hex" title="bytearray.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytearray.hex()</code></a> now supports
optional sep and bytes_per_sep parameters to insert separators
between bytes in the hex output.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</dd></dl>

Since bytearray objects are sequences of integers (akin to a list), for a
bytearray object b, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b[0]</code> will be an integer, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b[0:1]</code> will be
a bytearray object of length 1. (This contrasts with text strings, where
both indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)
The representation of bytearray objects uses the bytes literal format
(<code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray(b'...')</code>) since it is often more useful than e.g.
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray([46, 46, 46])</code>. You can always convert a bytearray object into
a list of integers using <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list(b)</code>.
</section>
<section id="bytes-and-bytearray-operations">
<h3>Bytes and Bytearray Operations<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes-and-bytearray-operations" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Both bytes and bytearray objects support the <a class="reference internal" href="#typesseq-common">common</a>
sequence operations. They interoperate not just with operands of the same
type, but with any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>. Due to this flexibility, they can be
freely mixed in operations without causing errors. However, the return type
of the result may depend on the order of operands.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don’t accept strings as their
arguments, just as the methods on strings don’t accept bytes as their
arguments. For example, you have to write:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>a = &quot;abc&quot;
b = a.replace(&quot;a&quot;, &quot;f&quot;)
</pre></div>
</div>
and:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>a = b&quot;abc&quot;
b = a.replace(b&quot;a&quot;, b&quot;f&quot;)
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
Some bytes and bytearray operations assume the use of ASCII compatible
binary formats, and hence should be avoided when working with arbitrary
binary data. These restrictions are covered below.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Using these ASCII based operations to manipulate binary data that is not
stored in an ASCII based format may lead to data corruption.
</div>
The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects can be used with
arbitrary binary data.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.count">
bytes.count(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.count" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.count">
bytearray.count(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.count" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of subsequence sub in
the range [start, end]. Optional arguments start and end are
interpreted as in slice notation.
The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> or an
integer in the range 0 to 255.
If sub is empty, returns the number of empty slices between characters
which is the length of the bytes object plus one.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.removeprefix">
bytes.removeprefix(prefix, /)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.removeprefix" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.removeprefix">
bytearray.removeprefix(prefix, /)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.removeprefix" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If the binary data starts with the prefix string, return
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes[len(prefix):]</code>. Otherwise, return a copy of the original
binary data:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;TestHook&#39;.removeprefix(b&#39;Test&#39;)
b&#39;Hook&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;BaseTestCase&#39;.removeprefix(b&#39;Test&#39;)
b&#39;BaseTestCase&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The prefix may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.removesuffix">
bytes.removesuffix(suffix, /)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.removesuffix" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.removesuffix">
bytearray.removesuffix(suffix, /)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.removesuffix" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If the binary data ends with the suffix string and that suffix is
not empty, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes[:-len(suffix)]</code>. Otherwise, return a copy of
the original binary data:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;MiscTests&#39;.removesuffix(b&#39;Tests&#39;)
b&#39;Misc&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;TmpDirMixin&#39;.removesuffix(b&#39;Tests&#39;)
b&#39;TmpDirMixin&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The suffix may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.decode">
bytes.decode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.decode" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.decode">
bytearray.decode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.decode" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the bytes decoded to a <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a>.
encoding defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'utf-8'</code>;
see <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#standard-encodings">Standard Encodings</a> for possible values.
errors controls how decoding errors are handled.
If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'strict'</code> (the default), a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#UnicodeError" title="UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">UnicodeError</code></a> exception is raised.
Other possible values are <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'ignore'</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'replace'</code>,
and any other name registered via <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#codecs.register_error" title="codecs.register_error"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">codecs.register_error()</code></a>.
See <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#error-handlers">Error Handlers</a> for details.
For performance reasons, the value of errors is not checked for validity
unless a decoding error actually occurs,
<a class="reference internal" href="devmode.html#devmode">Python Development Mode</a> is enabled or a <a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#debug-build">debug build</a> is used.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Passing the encoding argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> allows decoding any
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> directly, without needing to make a temporary
<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code> or <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code> object.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.1: Added support for keyword arguments.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.9: The value of the errors argument is now checked in <a class="reference internal" href="devmode.html#devmode">Python Development Mode</a> and
in <a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#debug-build">debug mode</a>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.endswith">
bytes.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.endswith" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.endswith">
bytearray.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.endswith" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the binary data ends with the specified suffix,
otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>. suffix can also be a tuple of suffixes to
look for. With optional start, test beginning at that position. With
optional end, stop comparing at that position.
The suffix(es) to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.find">
bytes.find(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.find" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.find">
bytearray.find(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.find" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the lowest index in the data where the subsequence sub is found,
such that sub is contained in the slice <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[start:end]</code>. Optional
arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Return
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code> if sub is not found.
The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> or an
integer in the range 0 to 255.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.find" title="bytes.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">find()</code></a> method should be used only if you need to know the
position of sub. To check if sub is a substring or not, use the
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#in"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">in</code></a> operator:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Py&#39; in b&#39;Python&#39;
True
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.index">
bytes.index(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.index" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.index">
bytearray.index(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.index" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.find" title="bytes.find"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">find()</code></a>, but raise <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> when the
subsequence is not found.
The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> or an
integer in the range 0 to 255.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.join">
bytes.join(iterable)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.join" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.join">
bytearray.join(iterable)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.join" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a bytes or bytearray object which is the concatenation of the
binary data sequences in iterable. A <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> will be raised
if there are any values in iterable that are not <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like
objects</a>, including <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> objects. The
separator between elements is the contents of the bytes or
bytearray object providing this method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.maketrans">
static bytes.maketrans(from, to)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.maketrans" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.maketrans">
static bytearray.maketrans(from, to)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.maketrans" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This static method returns a translation table usable for
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.translate" title="bytes.translate"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.translate()</code></a> that will map each character in from into the
character at the same position in to; from and to must both be
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like objects</a> and have the same length.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.1.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.partition">
bytes.partition(sep)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.partition" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.partition">
bytearray.partition(sep)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.partition" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Split the sequence at the first occurrence of sep, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.
If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
containing a copy of the original sequence, followed by two empty bytes or
bytearray objects.
The separator to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.replace">
bytes.replace(old, new[, count])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.replace" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.replace">
bytearray.replace(old, new[, count])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.replace" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence old
replaced by new. If the optional argument count is given, only the
first count occurrences are replaced.
The subsequence to search for and its replacement may be any
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.rfind">
bytes.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rfind" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.rfind">
bytearray.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rfind" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the highest index in the sequence where the subsequence sub is
found, such that sub is contained within <code class="docutils literal notranslate">s[start:end]</code>. Optional
arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Return
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code> on failure.
The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> or an
integer in the range 0 to 255.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.rindex">
bytes.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rindex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.rindex">
bytearray.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rindex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Like <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.rfind" title="bytes.rfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">rfind()</code></a> but raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> when the
subsequence sub is not found.
The subsequence to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a> or an
integer in the range 0 to 255.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.rpartition">
bytes.rpartition(sep)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rpartition" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.rpartition">
bytearray.rpartition(sep)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rpartition" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Split the sequence at the last occurrence of sep, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.
If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
containing two empty bytes or bytearray objects, followed by a copy of the
original sequence.
The separator to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.startswith">
bytes.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.startswith" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.startswith">
bytearray.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.startswith" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the binary data starts with the specified prefix,
otherwise return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>. prefix can also be a tuple of prefixes to
look for. With optional start, test beginning at that position. With
optional end, stop comparing at that position.
The prefix(es) to search for may be any <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.translate">
bytes.translate(table, /, delete=b'')<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.translate" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.translate">
bytearray.translate(table, /, delete=b'')<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.translate" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the bytes or bytearray object where all bytes occurring in
the optional argument delete are removed, and the remaining bytes have
been mapped through the given translation table, which must be a bytes
object of length 256.
You can use the <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.maketrans" title="bytes.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bytes.maketrans()</code></a> method to create a translation
table.
Set the table argument to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> for translations that only delete
characters:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;read this short text&#39;.translate(None, b&#39;aeiou&#39;)
b&#39;rd ths shrt txt&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.6: delete is now supported as a keyword argument.
</div>
</dd></dl>

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects have default behaviours
that assume the use of ASCII compatible binary formats, but can still be used
with arbitrary binary data by passing appropriate arguments. Note that all of
the bytearray methods in this section do not operate in place, and instead
produce new objects.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.center">
bytes.center(width[, fillbyte])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.center" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.center">
bytearray.center(width[, fillbyte])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.center" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the object centered in a sequence of length width.
Padding is done using the specified fillbyte (default is an ASCII
space). For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> objects, the original sequence is returned if
width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.ljust">
bytes.ljust(width[, fillbyte])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.ljust" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.ljust">
bytearray.ljust(width[, fillbyte])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.ljust" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the object left justified in a sequence of length width.
Padding is done using the specified fillbyte (default is an ASCII
space). For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> objects, the original sequence is returned if
width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.lstrip">
bytes.lstrip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.lstrip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.lstrip">
bytearray.lstrip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.lstrip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed. The
chars argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
ASCII characters. If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the chars argument defaults
to removing ASCII whitespace. The chars argument is not a prefix;
rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39; spacious &#39;.lstrip()
b&#39;spacious &#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;www.example.com&#39;.lstrip(b&#39;cmowz.&#39;)
b&#39;example.com&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>. See <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.removeprefix" title="bytes.removeprefix"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">removeprefix()</code></a> for a method
that will remove a single prefix string rather than all of a set of
characters. For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Arthur: three!&#39;.lstrip(b&#39;Arthur: &#39;)
b&#39;ee!&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Arthur: three!&#39;.removeprefix(b&#39;Arthur: &#39;)
b&#39;three!&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.rjust">
bytes.rjust(width[, fillbyte])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rjust" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.rjust">
bytearray.rjust(width[, fillbyte])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rjust" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the object right justified in a sequence of length width.
Padding is done using the specified fillbyte (default is an ASCII
space). For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> objects, the original sequence is returned if
width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(s)</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.rsplit">
bytes.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rsplit" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.rsplit">
bytearray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rsplit" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using sep
as the delimiter string. If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits
are done, the rightmost ones. If sep is not specified or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>,
any subsequence consisting solely of ASCII whitespace is a separator.
Except for splitting from the right, <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.rsplit" title="bytearray.rsplit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">rsplit()</code></a> behaves like
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray.split" title="bytearray.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">split()</code></a> which is described in detail below.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.rstrip">
bytes.rstrip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.rstrip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.rstrip">
bytearray.rstrip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.rstrip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes removed. The
chars argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
ASCII characters. If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the chars argument defaults to
removing ASCII whitespace. The chars argument is not a suffix; rather,
all combinations of its values are stripped:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39; spacious &#39;.rstrip()
b&#39; spacious&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;mississippi&#39;.rstrip(b&#39;ipz&#39;)
b&#39;mississ&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>. See <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.removesuffix" title="bytes.removesuffix"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">removesuffix()</code></a> for a method
that will remove a single suffix string rather than all of a set of
characters. For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Monty Python&#39;.rstrip(b&#39; Python&#39;)
b&#39;M&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Monty Python&#39;.removesuffix(b&#39; Python&#39;)
b&#39;Monty&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.split">
bytes.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.split" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.split">
bytearray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.split" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using sep
as the delimiter string. If maxsplit is given and non-negative, at most
maxsplit splits are done (thus, the list will have at most <code class="docutils literal notranslate">maxsplit+1</code>
elements). If maxsplit is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code>, then there is no
limit on the number of splits (all possible splits are made).
If sep is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'1,,2'.split(b',')</code>
returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[b'1', b'', b'2']</code>). The sep argument may consist of a
multibyte sequence (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'1&lt;&gt;2&lt;&gt;3'.split(b'&lt;&gt;')</code> returns
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">[b'1', b'2', b'3']</code>). Splitting an empty sequence with a specified
separator returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[b'']</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[bytearray(b'')]</code> depending on the type
of object being split. The sep argument may be any
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1,2,3&#39;.split(b&#39;,&#39;)
[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1,2,3&#39;.split(b&#39;,&#39;, maxsplit=1)
[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2,3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1,2,,3,&#39;.split(b&#39;,&#39;)
[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;, b&#39;&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
If sep is not specified or is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, a different splitting algorithm
is applied: runs of consecutive ASCII whitespace are regarded as a single
separator, and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or
end if the sequence has leading or trailing whitespace. Consequently,
splitting an empty sequence or a sequence consisting solely of ASCII
whitespace without a specified separator returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[]</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1 2 3&#39;.split()
[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1 2 3&#39;.split(maxsplit=1)
[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2 3&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39; 1 2 3 &#39;.split()
[b&#39;1&#39;, b&#39;2&#39;, b&#39;3&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.strip">
bytes.strip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.strip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.strip">
bytearray.strip([chars])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.strip" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing bytes
removed. The chars argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is
usually used with ASCII characters. If omitted or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the chars
argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The chars argument is
not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are
stripped:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39; spacious &#39;.strip()
b&#39;spacious&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;www.example.com&#39;.strip(b&#39;cmowz.&#39;)
b&#39;example&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytes-like-object">bytes-like object</a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place -
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects assume the use of ASCII
compatible binary formats and should not be applied to arbitrary binary data.
Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do not operate in
place, and instead produce new objects.
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.capitalize">
bytes.capitalize()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.capitalize" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.capitalize">
bytearray.capitalize()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.capitalize" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with each byte interpreted as an ASCII
character, and the first byte capitalized and the rest lowercased.
Non-ASCII byte values are passed through unchanged.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.expandtabs">
bytes.expandtabs(tabsize=8)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.expandtabs" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.expandtabs">
bytearray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.expandtabs" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence where all ASCII tab characters are replaced
by one or more ASCII spaces, depending on the current column and the given
tab size. Tab positions occur every tabsize bytes (default is 8,
giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on). To expand the
sequence, the current column is set to zero and the sequence is examined
byte by byte. If the byte is an ASCII tab character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'\t'</code>), one or
more space characters are inserted in the result until the current column
is equal to the next tab position. (The tab character itself is not
copied.) If the current byte is an ASCII newline (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'\n'</code>) or
carriage return (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'\r'</code>), it is copied and the current column is reset
to zero. Any other byte value is copied unchanged and the current column
is incremented by one regardless of how the byte value is represented when
printed:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;01\t012\t0123\t01234&#39;.expandtabs()
b&#39;01 012 0123 01234&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;01\t012\t0123\t01234&#39;.expandtabs(4)
b&#39;01 012 0123 01234&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.isalnum">
bytes.isalnum()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isalnum" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.isalnum">
bytearray.isalnum()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isalnum" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetical ASCII characters
or ASCII decimal digits and the sequence is not empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>. ASCII decimal
digits are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'0123456789'</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;ABCabc1&#39;.isalnum()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;ABC abc1&#39;.isalnum()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.isalpha">
bytes.isalpha()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isalpha" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.isalpha">
bytearray.isalpha()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isalpha" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetic ASCII characters
and the sequence is not empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. Alphabetic ASCII
characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;ABCabc&#39;.isalpha()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;ABCabc1&#39;.isalpha()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.isascii">
bytes.isascii()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isascii" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.isascii">
bytearray.isascii()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isascii" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the sequence is empty or all bytes in the sequence are ASCII,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
ASCII bytes are in the range 0-0x7F.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.7.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.isdigit">
bytes.isdigit()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isdigit" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.isdigit">
bytearray.isdigit()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isdigit" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII decimal digits
and the sequence is not empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. ASCII decimal digits are
those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'0123456789'</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1234&#39;.isdigit()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;1.23&#39;.isdigit()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.islower">
bytes.islower()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.islower" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.islower">
bytearray.islower()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.islower" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if there is at least one lowercase ASCII character
in the sequence and no uppercase ASCII characters, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;hello world&#39;.islower()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello world&#39;.islower()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.isspace">
bytes.isspace()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isspace" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.isspace">
bytearray.isspace()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isspace" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII whitespace and the
sequence is not empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. ASCII whitespace characters are
those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'</code> (space, tab, newline,
carriage return, vertical tab, form feed).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.istitle">
bytes.istitle()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.istitle" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.istitle">
bytearray.istitle()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.istitle" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the sequence is ASCII titlecase and the sequence is not
empty, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise. See <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.title" title="bytes.title"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.title()</code></a> for more details on the
definition of “titlecase”.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello World&#39;.istitle()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello world&#39;.istitle()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.isupper">
bytes.isupper()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.isupper" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.isupper">
bytearray.isupper()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.isupper" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if there is at least one uppercase alphabetic ASCII character
in the sequence and no lowercase ASCII characters, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> otherwise.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;HELLO WORLD&#39;.isupper()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello world&#39;.isupper()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.lower">
bytes.lower()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.lower" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.lower">
bytearray.lower()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.lower" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with all the uppercase ASCII characters
converted to their corresponding lowercase counterpart.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello World&#39;.lower()
b&#39;hello world&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method" id="index-44">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.splitlines">
bytes.splitlines(keepends=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.splitlines" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.splitlines">
bytearray.splitlines(keepends=False)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.splitlines" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of the lines in the binary sequence, breaking at ASCII
line boundaries. This method uses the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines">universal newlines</a> approach
to splitting lines. Line breaks are not included in the resulting list
unless keepends is given and true.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n&#39;.splitlines()
[b&#39;ab c&#39;, b&#39;&#39;, b&#39;de fg&#39;, b&#39;kl&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n&#39;.splitlines(keepends=True)
[b&#39;ab c\n&#39;, b&#39;\n&#39;, b&#39;de fg\r&#39;, b&#39;kl\r\n&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.split" title="bytes.split"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">split()</code></a> when a delimiter string sep is given, this
method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a terminal line
break does not result in an extra line:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&quot;&quot;.split(b&#39;\n&#39;), b&quot;Two lines\n&quot;.split(b&#39;\n&#39;)
([b&#39;&#39;], [b&#39;Two lines&#39;, b&#39;&#39;])
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&quot;&quot;.splitlines(), b&quot;One line\n&quot;.splitlines()
([], [b&#39;One line&#39;])
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.swapcase">
bytes.swapcase()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.swapcase" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.swapcase">
bytearray.swapcase()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.swapcase" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII characters
converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart and vice-versa.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello World&#39;.swapcase()
b&#39;hELLO wORLD&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="#str.swapcase" title="str.swapcase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str.swapcase()</code></a>, it is always the case that
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin</code> for the binary versions. Case
conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not generally
true for arbitrary Unicode code points.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.title">
bytes.title()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.title" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.title">
bytearray.title()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.title" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a titlecased version of the binary sequence where words start with
an uppercase ASCII character and the remaining characters are lowercase.
Uncased byte values are left unmodified.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello world&#39;.title()
b&#39;Hello World&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
All other byte values are uncased.
The algorithm uses a simple language-independent definition of a word as
groups of consecutive letters. The definition works in many contexts but
it means that apostrophes in contractions and possessives form word
boundaries, which may not be the desired result:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends from the UK&quot;.title()
b&quot;They&#39;Re Bill&#39;S Friends From The Uk&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
A workaround for apostrophes can be constructed using regular expressions:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import re
&gt;&gt;&gt; def titlecase(s):
... return re.sub(rb&quot;[A-Za-z]+(&#39;[A-Za-z]+)?&quot;,
... lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
... mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
... s)
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; titlecase(b&quot;they&#39;re bill&#39;s friends.&quot;)
b&quot;They&#39;re Bill&#39;s Friends.&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.upper">
bytes.upper()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.upper" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.upper">
bytearray.upper()<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.upper" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII characters
converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&#39;Hello World&#39;.upper()
b&#39;HELLO WORLD&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'</code>. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytes.zfill">
bytes.zfill(width)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes.zfill" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray.zfill">
bytearray.zfill(width)<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray.zfill" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a copy of the sequence left filled with ASCII <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'0'</code> digits to
make a sequence of length width. A leading sign prefix (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'+'</code>/
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'-'</code>) is handled by inserting the padding after the sign character
rather than before. For <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> objects, the original sequence is
returned if width is less than or equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(seq)</code>.
For example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b&quot;42&quot;.zfill(5)
b&#39;00042&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b&quot;-42&quot;.zfill(5)
b&#39;-0042&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="printf-style-bytes-formatting">
<h3><code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code>-style Bytes Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#printf-style-bytes-formatting" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
<div class="admonition note" id="index-45">
Note
The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that
lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and
dictionaries correctly). If the value being printed may be a tuple or
dictionary, wrap it in a tuple.
</div>
Bytes objects (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code>) have one unique built-in operation:
the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%</code> operator (modulo).
This is also known as the bytes formatting or interpolation operator.
Given <code class="docutils literal notranslate">format % values</code> (where format is a bytes object), <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%</code> conversion
specifications in format are replaced with zero or more elements of values.
The effect is similar to using the <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">sprintf()</code> in the C language.
If format requires a single argument, values may be a single non-tuple
object. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id16" id="id11" role="doc-noteref">[5]</a> Otherwise, values must be a tuple with exactly the number of
items specified by the format bytes object, or a single mapping object (for
example, a dictionary).
A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following
components, which must occur in this order:
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code> character, which marks the start of the specifier.</li>
<li>Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of characters
(for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(somename)</code>).</li>
<li>Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion
types.</li>
<li>Minimum field width (optional). If specified as an <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'*'</code> (asterisk), the
actual width is read from the next element of the tuple in values, and the
object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.</li>
<li>Precision (optional), given as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'.'</code> (dot) followed by the precision. If
specified as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'*'</code> (an asterisk), the actual precision is read from the next
element of the tuple in values, and the value to convert comes after the
precision.</li>
<li>Length modifier (optional).</li>
<li>Conversion type.</li>
</ol>
When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then the
formats in the bytes object must include a parenthesised mapping key into that
dictionary inserted immediately after the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code> character. The mapping key
selects the value to be formatted from the mapping. For example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; print(b&#39;%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.&#39; %
... {b&#39;language&#39;: b&quot;Python&quot;, b&quot;number&quot;: 2})
b&#39;Python has 002 quote types.&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
In this case no <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> specifiers may occur in a format (since they require a
sequential parameter list).
The conversion flag characters are:
<table class="docutils align-default" id="index-47">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Flag</th>
<th class="head">Meaning</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'#'</code></td>
<td>The value conversion will use the “alternate form” (where defined
below).</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0'</code></td>
<td>The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'-'</code></td>
<td>The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0'</code>
conversion if both are given).</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">' '</code></td>
<td>(a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
string) produced by a signed conversion.</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'+'</code></td>
<td>A sign character (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'+'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'-'</code>) will precede the conversion
(overrides a “space” flag).</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
A length modifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">h</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">l</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">L</code>) may be present, but is ignored as it
is not necessary for Python – so e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%ld</code> is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%d</code>.
The conversion types are:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Conversion</th>
<th class="head">Meaning</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'d'</code></td>
<td>Signed integer decimal.</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'i'</code></td>
<td>Signed integer decimal.</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'o'</code></td>
<td>Signed octal value.</td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'u'</code></td>
<td>Obsolete type – it is identical to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'d'</code>.</td>
<td>(8)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'x'</code></td>
<td>Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).</td>
<td>(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'X'</code></td>
<td>Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).</td>
<td>(2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'e'</code></td>
<td>Floating point exponential format (lowercase).</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'E'</code></td>
<td>Floating point exponential format (uppercase).</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'f'</code></td>
<td>Floating point decimal format.</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'F'</code></td>
<td>Floating point decimal format.</td>
<td>(3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'g'</code></td>
<td>Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential
format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
precision, decimal format otherwise.</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'G'</code></td>
<td>Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential
format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than
precision, decimal format otherwise.</td>
<td>(4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'c'</code></td>
<td>Single byte (accepts integer or single
byte objects).</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'b'</code></td>
<td>Bytes (any object that follows the
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects">buffer protocol</a> or has
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__bytes__" title="object.__bytes__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__bytes__()</code></a>).</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'s'</code></td>
<td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'s'</code> is an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'b'</code> and should only
be used for Python2/3 code bases.</td>
<td>(6)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a'</code></td>
<td>Bytes (converts any Python object using
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')</code>).</td>
<td>(5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code></td>
<td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code> is an alias for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a'</code> and should only
be used for Python2/3 code bases.</td>
<td>(7)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code></td>
<td>No argument is converted, results in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%'</code>
character in the result.</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Notes:
<ol class="arabic">
<li>The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0o'</code>) to be
inserted before the first digit.</li>
<li>The alternate form causes a leading <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0x'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'0X'</code> (depending on whether
the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'x'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'X'</code> format was used) to be inserted before the first digit.</li>
<li>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, even if
no digits follow it.
The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal point and
defaults to 6.
</li>
<li>The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal point, and
trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise be.
The precision determines the number of significant digits before and after the
decimal point and defaults to 6.
</li>
<li>If precision is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">N</code>, the output is truncated to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">N</code> characters.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'%s'</code> is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x series.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">b'%r'</code> is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x series.</li>
<li>See <a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/">PEP 237</a>.</li>
</ol>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The bytearray version of this method does not operate in place - it
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
</div>
<div class="admonition seealso">
See also
<a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/">PEP 461</a> - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
</section>
<section id="memory-views">
<h3>Memory Views<a class="headerlink" href="#memory-views" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
<a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a> objects allow Python code to access the internal data
of an object that supports the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/buffer.html#bufferobjects">buffer protocol</a> without
copying.
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview">
class memoryview(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a> that references object. object must
support the buffer protocol. Built-in objects that support the buffer
protocol include <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>.
A <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a> has the notion of an element, which is the
atomic memory unit handled by the originating object. For many simple
types such as <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a>, an element is a single
byte, but other types such as <a class="reference internal" href="array.html#array.array" title="array.array"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">array.array</code></a> may have bigger elements.
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(view)</code> is equal to the length of <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tolist</code></a>, which
is the nested list representation of the view. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">view.ndim = 1</code>,
this is equal to the number of elements in the view.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.12: If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">view.ndim == 0</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(view)</code> now raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a> instead of returning 1.
</div>
The <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.itemsize" title="memoryview.itemsize"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">itemsize</code></a> attribute will give you the number of
bytes in a single element.
A <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a> supports slicing and indexing to expose its data.
One-dimensional slicing will result in a subview:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; v = memoryview(b&#39;abcefg&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[1]
98
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[-1]
103
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[1:4]
&lt;memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; bytes(v[1:4])
b&#39;bce&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
If <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.format" title="memoryview.format"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">format</code></a> is one of the native format specifiers
from the <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> module, indexing with an integer or a tuple of
integers is also supported and returns a single element with
the correct type. One-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed
with an integer or a one-integer tuple. Multi-dimensional memoryviews
can be indexed with tuples of exactly ndim integers where ndim is
the number of dimensions. Zero-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed
with the empty tuple.
Here is an example with a non-byte format:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import array
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = array.array(&#39;l&#39;, [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(a)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[0]
-11111111
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[-1]
44444444
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[::2].tolist()
[-11111111, -33333333]
</pre></div>
</div>
If the underlying object is writable, the memoryview supports
one-dimensional slice assignment. Resizing is not allowed:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; data = bytearray(b&#39;abcefg&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; v = memoryview(data)
&gt;&gt;&gt; v.readonly
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[0] = ord(b&#39;z&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; data
bytearray(b&#39;zbcefg&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[1:4] = b&#39;123&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; data
bytearray(b&#39;z123fg&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[2:3] = b&#39;spam&#39;
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
&gt;&gt;&gt; v[2:6] = b&#39;spam&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; data
bytearray(b&#39;z1spam&#39;)
</pre></div>
</div>
One-dimensional memoryviews of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a> (read-only) types with formats
‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are also hashable. The hash is defined as
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes())</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; v = memoryview(b&#39;abcefg&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; hash(v) == hash(b&#39;abcefg&#39;)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b&#39;ce&#39;)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b&#39;abcefg&#39;[::-2])
True
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: One-dimensional memoryviews can now be sliced.
One-dimensional memoryviews with formats ‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are now <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.4: memoryview is now registered automatically with
<a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Sequence</code></a>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: memoryviews can now be indexed with tuple of integers.
</div>
<a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a> has several methods:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.__eq__">
__eq__(exporter)<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.__eq__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A memoryview and a <a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/">PEP 3118</a> exporter are equal if their shapes are
equivalent and if all corresponding values are equal when the operands’
respective format codes are interpreted using <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> syntax.
For the subset of <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> format strings currently supported by
<a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">tolist()</code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">v</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">w</code> are equal if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">v.tolist() == w.tolist()</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import array
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = array.array(&#39;I&#39;, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = array.array(&#39;d&#39;, [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
&gt;&gt;&gt; c = array.array(&#39;b&#39;, [5, 3, 1])
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = memoryview(a)
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = memoryview(b)
&gt;&gt;&gt; x == a == y == b
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; z = y[::-2]
&gt;&gt;&gt; z == c
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; z.tolist() == c.tolist()
True
</pre></div>
</div>
If either format string is not supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> module,
then the objects will always compare as unequal (even if the format
strings and buffer contents are identical):
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
&gt;&gt;&gt; class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
... _fields_ = [(&quot;x&quot;, c_long), (&quot;y&quot;, c_long)]
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; point = BEPoint(100, 200)
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = memoryview(point)
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = memoryview(point)
&gt;&gt;&gt; a == point
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; a == b
False
</pre></div>
</div>
Note that, as with floating point numbers, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">v is w</code> does not imply
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">v == w</code> for memoryview objects.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: Previous versions compared the raw memory disregarding the item format
and the logical array structure.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.tobytes">
tobytes(order='C')<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.tobytes" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring. This is equivalent to
calling the <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> constructor on the memoryview.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(b&quot;abc&quot;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.tobytes()
b&#39;abc&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; bytes(m)
b&#39;abc&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
For non-contiguous arrays the result is equal to the flattened list
representation with all elements converted to bytes. <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tobytes" title="memoryview.tobytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">tobytes()</code></a>
supports all format strings, including those that are not in
<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> module syntax.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.8: order can be {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’}. When order is ‘C’ or ‘F’, the data
of the original array is converted to C or Fortran order. For contiguous
views, ‘A’ returns an exact copy of the physical memory. In particular,
in-memory Fortran order is preserved. For non-contiguous views, the
data is converted to C first. order=None is the same as order=’C’.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.hex">
hex([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.hex" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
byte in the buffer.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(b&quot;abc&quot;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.hex()
&#39;616263&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.5.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes.hex" title="bytes.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">bytes.hex()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.hex" title="memoryview.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">memoryview.hex()</code></a> now supports
optional sep and bytes_per_sep parameters to insert separators
between bytes in the hex output.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.tolist">
tolist()<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the data in the buffer as a list of elements.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; memoryview(b&#39;abc&#39;).tolist()
[97, 98, 99]
&gt;&gt;&gt; import array
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = array.array(&#39;d&#39;, [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(a)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.tolist()
[1.1, 2.2, 3.3]
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">tolist()</code></a> now supports all single character native formats in
<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> module syntax as well as multi-dimensional
representations.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.toreadonly">
toreadonly()<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.toreadonly" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a readonly version of the memoryview object. The original
memoryview object is unchanged.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(bytearray(b&#39;abc&#39;))
&gt;&gt;&gt; mm = m.toreadonly()
&gt;&gt;&gt; mm.tolist()
[97, 98, 99]
&gt;&gt;&gt; mm[0] = 42
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[0] = 43
&gt;&gt;&gt; mm.tolist()
[43, 98, 99]
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.8.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.release">
release()<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.release" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview object. Many
objects take special actions when a view is held on them (for example,
a <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a> would temporarily forbid resizing); therefore,
calling release() is handy to remove these restrictions (and free any
dangling resources) as soon as possible.
After this method has been called, any further operation on the view
raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> (except <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.release" title="memoryview.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">release()</code></a> itself which can
be called multiple times):
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(b&#39;abc&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.release()
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object
</pre></div>
</div>
The context management protocol can be used for a similar effect,
using the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">with</code> statement:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; with memoryview(b&#39;abc&#39;) as m:
... m[0]
...
97
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.cast">
cast(format[, shape])<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.cast" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape. shape defaults to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">[byte_length//new_itemsize]</code>, which means that the result view
will be one-dimensional. The return value is a new memoryview, but
the buffer itself is not copied. Supported casts are 1D -&gt; C-<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous">contiguous</a>
and C-contiguous -&gt; 1D.
The destination format is restricted to a single element native format in
<a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> syntax. One of the formats must be a byte format
(‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’). The byte length of the result must be the same
as the original length.
Note that all byte lengths may depend on the operating system.
Cast 1D/long to 1D/unsigned bytes:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import array
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = array.array(&#39;l&#39;, [1,2,3])
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = memoryview(a)
&gt;&gt;&gt; x.format
&#39;l&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; x.itemsize
8
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(x)
3
&gt;&gt;&gt; x.nbytes
24
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = x.cast(&#39;B&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.format
&#39;B&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.itemsize
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(y)
24
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.nbytes
24
</pre></div>
</div>
Cast 1D/unsigned bytes to 1D/char:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b = bytearray(b&#39;zyz&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = memoryview(b)
&gt;&gt;&gt; x[0] = b&#39;a&#39;
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format &#39;B&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = x.cast(&#39;c&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; y[0] = b&#39;a&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; b
bytearray(b&#39;ayz&#39;)
</pre></div>
</div>
Cast 1D/bytes to 3D/ints to 1D/signed char:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import struct
&gt;&gt;&gt; buf = struct.pack(&quot;i&quot;*12, *list(range(12)))
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = memoryview(buf)
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = x.cast(&#39;i&#39;, shape=[2,2,3])
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.tolist()
[[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.format
&#39;i&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.itemsize
4
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(y)
2
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.nbytes
48
&gt;&gt;&gt; z = y.cast(&#39;b&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; z.format
&#39;b&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; z.itemsize
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(z)
48
&gt;&gt;&gt; z.nbytes
48
</pre></div>
</div>
Cast 1D/unsigned long to 2D/unsigned long:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; buf = struct.pack(&quot;L&quot;*6, *list(range(6)))
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = memoryview(buf)
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = x.cast(&#39;L&#39;, shape=[2,3])
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(y)
2
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.nbytes
48
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.tolist()
[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.5: The source format is no longer restricted when casting to a byte view.
</div>
</dd></dl>

There are also several readonly attributes available:
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.obj">
obj<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.obj" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The underlying object of the memoryview:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; b = bytearray(b&#39;xyz&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(b)
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.obj is b
True
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.nbytes">
nbytes<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.nbytes" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><code class="docutils literal notranslate">nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())</code>. This is
the amount of space in bytes that the array would use in a contiguous
representation. It is not necessarily equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(m)</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import array
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = array.array(&#39;i&#39;, [1,2,3,4,5])
&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(a)
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(m)
5
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.nbytes
20
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = m[::2]
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(y)
3
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.nbytes
12
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(y.tobytes())
12
</pre></div>
</div>
Multi-dimensional arrays:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import struct
&gt;&gt;&gt; buf = struct.pack(&quot;d&quot;*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
&gt;&gt;&gt; x = memoryview(buf)
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = x.cast(&#39;d&#39;, shape=[3,4])
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.tolist()
[[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(y)
3
&gt;&gt;&gt; y.nbytes
96
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.readonly">
readonly<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.readonly" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A bool indicating whether the memory is read only.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.format">
format<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.format" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A string containing the format (in <a class="reference internal" href="struct.html#module-struct" title="struct: Interpret bytes as packed binary data."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">struct</code></a> module style) for each
element in the view. A memoryview can be created from exporters with
arbitrary format strings, but some methods (e.g. <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.tolist" title="memoryview.tolist"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">tolist()</code></a>) are
restricted to native single element formats.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: format <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'B'</code> is now handled according to the struct module syntax.
This means that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.itemsize">
itemsize<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.itemsize" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import array, struct
&gt;&gt;&gt; m = memoryview(array.array(&#39;H&#39;, [32000, 32001, 32002]))
&gt;&gt;&gt; m.itemsize
2
&gt;&gt;&gt; m[0]
32000
&gt;&gt;&gt; struct.calcsize(&#39;H&#39;) == m.itemsize
True
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.ndim">
ndim<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.ndim" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>An integer indicating how many dimensions of a multi-dimensional array the
memory represents.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.shape">
shape<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.shape" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A tuple of integers the length of <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.ndim" title="memoryview.ndim"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">ndim</code></a> giving the shape of the
memory as an N-dimensional array.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: An empty tuple instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> when ndim = 0.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.strides">
strides<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.strides" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A tuple of integers the length of <a class="reference internal" href="#memoryview.ndim" title="memoryview.ndim"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">ndim</code></a> giving the size in bytes to
access each element for each dimension of the array.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.3: An empty tuple instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> when ndim = 0.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.suboffsets">
suboffsets<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.suboffsets" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Used internally for PIL-style arrays. The value is informational only.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.c_contiguous">
c_contiguous<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.c_contiguous" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A bool indicating whether the memory is C-<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous">contiguous</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.f_contiguous">
f_contiguous<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.f_contiguous" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A bool indicating whether the memory is Fortran <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous">contiguous</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="memoryview.contiguous">
contiguous<a class="headerlink" href="#memoryview.contiguous" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A bool indicating whether the memory is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-contiguous">contiguous</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</dd></dl>

</section>
</section>
<section id="set-types-set-frozenset">
<h2>Set Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#set-types-set-frozenset" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
A set object is an unordered collection of distinct <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a> objects.
Common uses include membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and
computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference, and
symmetric difference.
(For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a>,
and <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> classes, and the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a> module.)
Like other collections, sets support <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x in set</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">len(set)</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">for x in
set</code>. Being an unordered collection, sets do not record element position or
order of insertion. Accordingly, sets do not support indexing, slicing, or
other sequence-like behavior.
There are currently two built-in set types, <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>.
The <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> type is mutable — the contents can be changed using methods
like <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">add()</code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">remove()</code>. Since it is mutable, it has no
hash value and cannot be used as either a dictionary key or as an element of
another set. The <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a> type is immutable and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a> —
its contents cannot be altered after it is created; it can therefore be used as
a dictionary key or as an element of another set.
Non-empty sets (not frozensets) can be created by placing a comma-separated list
of elements within braces, for example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{'jack', 'sjoerd'}</code>, in addition to the
<a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> constructor.
The constructors for both classes work the same:
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="set">
class set([iterable])<a class="headerlink" href="#set" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset">
class frozenset([iterable])<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new set or frozenset object whose elements are taken from
iterable. The elements of a set must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>. To
represent sets of sets, the inner sets must be <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>
objects. If iterable is not specified, a new empty set is
returned.
Sets can be created by several means:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Use a comma-separated list of elements within braces: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{'jack', 'sjoerd'}</code></li>
<li>Use a set comprehension: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}</code></li>
<li>Use the type constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set()</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set('foobar')</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set(['a', 'b', 'foo'])</code></li>
</ul>
Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a> provide the following
operations:
<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
len(s)</dt>
<dd>Return the number of elements in set s (cardinality of s).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
x in s</dt>
<dd>Test x for membership in s.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
x not in s</dt>
<dd>Test x for non-membership in s.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.isdisjoint">
isdisjoint(other)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.isdisjoint" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the set has no elements in common with other. Sets are
disjoint if and only if their intersection is the empty set.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.issubset">
issubset(other)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.issubset" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set &lt;= other</dt>
<dd>Test whether every element in the set is in other.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set &lt; other</dt>
<dd>Test whether the set is a proper subset of other, that is,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">set &lt;= other and set != other</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.issuperset">
issuperset(other)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.issuperset" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set &gt;= other</dt>
<dd>Test whether every element in other is in the set.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set &gt; other</dt>
<dd>Test whether the set is a proper superset of other, that is, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set &gt;=
other and set != other</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.union">
union(*others)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.union" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set | other | ...</dt>
<dd>Return a new set with elements from the set and all others.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.intersection">
intersection(*others)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.intersection" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set &amp; other &amp; ...</dt>
<dd>Return a new set with elements common to the set and all others.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.difference">
difference(*others)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.difference" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set - other - ...</dt>
<dd>Return a new set with elements in the set that are not in the others.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.symmetric_difference">
symmetric_difference(other)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set ^ other</dt>
<dd>Return a new set with elements in either the set or other but not both.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.copy">
copy()<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.copy" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a shallow copy of the set.
</dd></dl>

Note, the non-operator versions of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.union" title="frozenset.union"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">union()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.intersection" title="frozenset.intersection"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">intersection()</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.difference" title="frozenset.difference"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">difference()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference" title="frozenset.symmetric_difference"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">symmetric_difference()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.issubset" title="frozenset.issubset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">issubset()</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.issuperset" title="frozenset.issuperset"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">issuperset()</code></a> methods will accept any iterable as an argument. In
contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to be
sets. This precludes error-prone constructions like <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set('abc') &amp; 'cbs'</code>
in favor of the more readable <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set('abc').intersection('cbs')</code>.
Both <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a> support set to set comparisons. Two
sets are equal if and only if every element of each set is contained in the
other (each is a subset of the other). A set is less than another set if and
only if the first set is a proper subset of the second set (is a subset, but
is not equal). A set is greater than another set if and only if the first set
is a proper superset of the second set (is a superset, but is not equal).
Instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> are compared to instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>
based on their members. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set('abc') == frozenset('abc')</code>
returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> and so does <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')])</code>.
The subset and equality comparisons do not generalize to a total ordering
function. For example, any two nonempty disjoint sets are not equal and are not
subsets of each other, so all of the following return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a&lt;b</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">a==b</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a&gt;b</code>.
Since sets only define partial ordering (subset relationships), the output of
the <a class="reference internal" href="#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">list.sort()</code></a> method is undefined for lists of sets.
Set elements, like dictionary keys, must be <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>.
Binary operations that mix <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> instances with <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>
return the type of the first operand. For example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">frozenset('ab') |
set('bc')</code> returns an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>.
The following table lists operations available for <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> that do not
apply to immutable instances of <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.update">
update(*others)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.update" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set |= other | ...</dt>
<dd>Update the set, adding elements from all others.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.intersection_update">
intersection_update(*others)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.intersection_update" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set &amp;= other &amp; ...</dt>
<dd>Update the set, keeping only elements found in it and all others.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.difference_update">
difference_update(*others)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.difference_update" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set -= other | ...</dt>
<dd>Update the set, removing elements found in others.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.symmetric_difference_update">
symmetric_difference_update(other)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference_update" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
set ^= other</dt>
<dd>Update the set, keeping only elements found in either set, but not in both.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.add">
add(elem)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.add" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Add element elem to the set.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.remove">
remove(elem)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.remove" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Remove element elem from the set. Raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a> if elem is
not contained in the set.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.discard">
discard(elem)<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.discard" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Remove element elem from the set if it is present.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.pop">
pop()<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.pop" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Remove and return an arbitrary element from the set. Raises
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a> if the set is empty.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="frozenset.clear">
clear()<a class="headerlink" href="#frozenset.clear" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Remove all elements from the set.
</dd></dl>

Note, the non-operator versions of the <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.update" title="frozenset.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">update()</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.intersection_update" title="frozenset.intersection_update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">intersection_update()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.difference_update" title="frozenset.difference_update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">difference_update()</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.symmetric_difference_update" title="frozenset.symmetric_difference_update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">symmetric_difference_update()</code></a> methods will accept any iterable as an
argument.
Note, the elem argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__contains__" title="object.__contains__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__contains__()</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.remove" title="frozenset.remove"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">remove()</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset.discard" title="frozenset.discard"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">discard()</code></a> methods may be a set. To support searching for an equivalent
frozenset, a temporary one is created from elem.
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="mapping-types-dict">
<h2>Mapping Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a><a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-types-dict" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
A <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping">mapping</a> object maps <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a> values to arbitrary objects.
Mappings are mutable objects. There is currently only one standard mapping
type, the dictionary. (For other containers see the built-in
<a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> classes, and the
<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: Container datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a> module.)
A dictionary’s keys are almost arbitrary values. Values that are not
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>, that is, values containing lists, dictionaries or other
mutable types (that are compared by value rather than by object identity) may
not be used as keys.
Values that compare equal (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1.0</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code>)
can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict">
class dict(**kwargs)<a class="headerlink" href="#dict" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class dict(mapping, **kwargs)</dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class dict(iterable, **kwargs)</dt>
<dd>Return a new dictionary initialized from an optional positional argument
and a possibly empty set of keyword arguments.
Dictionaries can be created by several means:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Use a comma-separated list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">key: value</code> pairs within braces:
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{4098: 'jack', 4127: 'sjoerd'}</code></li>
<li>Use a dict comprehension: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{}</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">{x: x ** 2 for x in range(10)}</code></li>
<li>Use the type constructor: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict()</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict([('foo', 100), ('bar', 200)])</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict(foo=100, bar=200)</code></li>
</ul>
If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
If a positional argument is given and it is a mapping object, a dictionary
is created with the same key-value pairs as the mapping object. Otherwise,
the positional argument must be an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable">iterable</a> object. Each item in
the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two objects. The
first object of each item becomes a key in the new dictionary, and the
second object the corresponding value. If a key occurs more than once, the
last value for that key becomes the corresponding value in the new
dictionary.
If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
added to the dictionary created from the positional argument. If a key
being added is already present, the value from the keyword argument
replaces the value from the positional argument.
To illustrate, the following examples all return a dictionary equal to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">{&quot;one&quot;: 1, &quot;two&quot;: 2, &quot;three&quot;: 3}</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = {&#39;one&#39;: 1, &#39;two&#39;: 2, &#39;three&#39;: 3}
&gt;&gt;&gt; c = dict(zip([&#39;one&#39;, &#39;two&#39;, &#39;three&#39;], [1, 2, 3]))
&gt;&gt;&gt; d = dict([(&#39;two&#39;, 2), (&#39;one&#39;, 1), (&#39;three&#39;, 3)])
&gt;&gt;&gt; e = dict({&#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;one&#39;: 1, &#39;two&#39;: 2})
&gt;&gt;&gt; f = dict({&#39;one&#39;: 1, &#39;three&#39;: 3}, two=2)
&gt;&gt;&gt; a == b == c == d == e == f
True
</pre></div>
</div>
Providing keyword arguments as in the first example only works for keys that
are valid Python identifiers. Otherwise, any valid keys can be used.
These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore, custom
mapping types should support too):
<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
list(d)</dt>
<dd>Return a list of all the keys used in the dictionary d.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
len(d)</dt>
<dd>Return the number of items in the dictionary d.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
d[key]</dt>
<dd>Return the item of d with key key. Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a> if key is
not in the map.
If a subclass of dict defines a method <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__missing__()</code> and key
is not present, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">d[key]</code> operation calls that method with the key key
as argument. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">d[key]</code> operation then returns or raises whatever is
returned or raised by the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__missing__(key)</code> call.
No other operations or methods invoke <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__missing__()</code>. If
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__missing__()</code> is not defined, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a> is raised.
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__missing__()</code> must be a method; it cannot be an instance variable:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; class Counter(dict):
... def __missing__(self, key):
... return 0
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; c = Counter()
&gt;&gt;&gt; c[&#39;red&#39;]
0
&gt;&gt;&gt; c[&#39;red&#39;] += 1
&gt;&gt;&gt; c[&#39;red&#39;]
1
</pre></div>
</div>
The example above shows part of the implementation of
<a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.Counter</code></a>. A different <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__missing__</code> method is used
by <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.defaultdict</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
d[key] = value</dt>
<dd>Set <code class="docutils literal notranslate">d[key]</code> to value.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
del d[key]</dt>
<dd>Remove <code class="docutils literal notranslate">d[key]</code> from d. Raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a> if key is not in the
map.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
key in d</dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if d has a key key, else <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
key not in d</dt>
<dd>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">not key in d</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
iter(d)</dt>
<dd>Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary. This is a shortcut
for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">iter(d.keys())</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.clear">
clear()<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.clear" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Remove all items from the dictionary.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.copy">
copy()<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.copy" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.fromkeys">
classmethod fromkeys(iterable[, value])<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.fromkeys" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Create a new dictionary with keys from iterable and values set to value.
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.fromkeys" title="dict.fromkeys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">fromkeys()</code></a> is a class method that returns a new dictionary. value
defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. All of the values refer to just a single instance,
so it generally doesn’t make sense for value to be a mutable object
such as an empty list. To get distinct values, use a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#dict">dict
comprehension</a> instead.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.get">
get(key[, default])<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.get" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the value for key if key is in the dictionary, else default.
If default is not given, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, so that this method
never raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.items">
items()<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.items" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new view of the dictionary’s items (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">(key, value)</code> pairs).
See the <a class="reference internal" href="#dict-views">documentation of view objects</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.keys">
keys()<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.keys" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new view of the dictionary’s keys. See the <a class="reference internal" href="#dict-views">documentation
of view objects</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.pop">
pop(key[, default])<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.pop" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If key is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value, else return
default. If default is not given and key is not in the dictionary,
a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a> is raised.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.popitem">
popitem()<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.popitem" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Remove and return a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(key, value)</code> pair from the dictionary.
Pairs are returned in <abbr title="last-in, first-out">LIFO</abbr> order.
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.popitem" title="dict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">popitem()</code></a> is useful to destructively iterate over a dictionary, as
often used in set algorithms. If the dictionary is empty, calling
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.popitem" title="dict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">popitem()</code></a> raises a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#KeyError" title="KeyError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">KeyError</code></a>.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: LIFO order is now guaranteed. In prior versions, <a class="reference internal" href="#dict.popitem" title="dict.popitem"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">popitem()</code></a> would
return an arbitrary key/value pair.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
reversed(d)</dt>
<dd>Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the dictionary. This is a
shortcut for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">reversed(d.keys())</code>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.8.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.setdefault">
setdefault(key[, default])<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.setdefault" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If key is in the dictionary, return its value. If not, insert key
with a value of default and return default. default defaults to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.update">
update([other])<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.update" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from other, overwriting
existing keys. Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.update" title="dict.update"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">update()</code></a> accepts either another dictionary object or an iterable of
key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length two). If keyword
arguments are specified, the dictionary is then updated with those
key/value pairs: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">d.update(red=1, blue=2)</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dict.values">
values()<a class="headerlink" href="#dict.values" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new view of the dictionary’s values. See the
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict-views">documentation of view objects</a>.
An equality comparison between one <code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict.values()</code> view and another
will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>. This also applies when comparing
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict.values()</code> to itself:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; d = {&#39;a&#39;: 1}
&gt;&gt;&gt; d.values() == d.values()
False
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
d | other</dt>
<dd>Create a new dictionary with the merged keys and values of d and
other, which must both be dictionaries. The values of other take
priority when d and other share keys.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
d |= other</dt>
<dd>Update the dictionary d with keys and values from other, which may be
either a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping">mapping</a> or an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable">iterable</a> of key/value pairs. The
values of other take priority when d and other share keys.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</dd></dl>

Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(key,
value)</code> pairs (regardless of ordering). Order comparisons (‘&lt;’, ‘&lt;=’, ‘&gt;=’, ‘&gt;’) raise
<a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code></a>.
Dictionaries preserve insertion order. Note that updating a key does not
affect the order. Keys added after deletion are inserted at the end.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; d = {&quot;one&quot;: 1, &quot;two&quot;: 2, &quot;three&quot;: 3, &quot;four&quot;: 4}
&gt;&gt;&gt; d
{&#39;one&#39;: 1, &#39;two&#39;: 2, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4}
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(d)
[&#39;one&#39;, &#39;two&#39;, &#39;three&#39;, &#39;four&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(d.values())
[1, 2, 3, 4]
&gt;&gt;&gt; d[&quot;one&quot;] = 42
&gt;&gt;&gt; d
{&#39;one&#39;: 42, &#39;two&#39;: 2, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4}
&gt;&gt;&gt; del d[&quot;two&quot;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; d[&quot;two&quot;] = None
&gt;&gt;&gt; d
{&#39;one&#39;: 42, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4, &#39;two&#39;: None}
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order. This behavior was
an implementation detail of CPython from 3.6.
</div>
Dictionaries and dictionary views are reversible.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; d = {&quot;one&quot;: 1, &quot;two&quot;: 2, &quot;three&quot;: 3, &quot;four&quot;: 4}
&gt;&gt;&gt; d
{&#39;one&#39;: 1, &#39;two&#39;: 2, &#39;three&#39;: 3, &#39;four&#39;: 4}
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(reversed(d))
[&#39;four&#39;, &#39;three&#39;, &#39;two&#39;, &#39;one&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(reversed(d.values()))
[4, 3, 2, 1]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(reversed(d.items()))
[(&#39;four&#39;, 4), (&#39;three&#39;, 3), (&#39;two&#39;, 2), (&#39;one&#39;, 1)]
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Dictionaries are now reversible.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<div class="admonition seealso">
See also
<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">types.MappingProxyType</code></a> can be used to create a read-only view
of a <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>.
</div>
<section id="dictionary-view-objects">
<h3>Dictionary view objects<a class="headerlink" href="#dictionary-view-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The objects returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#dict.keys" title="dict.keys"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">dict.keys()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#dict.values" title="dict.values"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">dict.values()</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict.items" title="dict.items"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">dict.items()</code></a> are view objects. They provide a dynamic view on the
dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view
reflects these changes.
Dictionary views can be iterated over to yield their respective data, and
support membership tests:
<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
len(dictview)</dt>
<dd>Return the number of entries in the dictionary.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
iter(dictview)</dt>
<dd>Return an iterator over the keys, values or items (represented as tuples of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">(key, value)</code>) in the dictionary.
Keys and values are iterated over in insertion order.
This allows the creation of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(value, key)</code> pairs
using <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">zip()</code></a>: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())</code>. Another way to
create the same list is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]</code>.
Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary may raise
a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#RuntimeError" title="RuntimeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">RuntimeError</code></a> or fail to iterate over all entries.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.7: Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
x in dictview</dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if x is in the underlying dictionary’s keys, values or
items (in the latter case, x should be a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(key, value)</code> tuple).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
reversed(dictview)</dt>
<dd>Return a reverse iterator over the keys, values or items of the dictionary.
The view will be iterated in reverse order of the insertion.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 3.8: Dictionary views are now reversible.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
dictview.mapping</dt>
<dd>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">types.MappingProxyType</code></a> that wraps the original
dictionary to which the view refers.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.10.
</div>
</dd></dl>

Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-hashable">hashable</a>.
Items views also have set-like operations since the (key, value) pairs
are unique and the keys are hashable.
If all values in an items view are hashable as well,
then the items view can interoperate with other sets.
(Values views are not treated as set-like
since the entries are generally not unique.) For set-like views, all of the
operations defined for the abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Set</code></a> are
available (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">==</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">^</code>). While using set operators,
set-like views accept any iterable as the other operand,
unlike sets which only accept sets as the input.
An example of dictionary view usage:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; dishes = {&#39;eggs&#39;: 2, &#39;sausage&#39;: 1, &#39;bacon&#39;: 1, &#39;spam&#39;: 500}
&gt;&gt;&gt; keys = dishes.keys()
&gt;&gt;&gt; values = dishes.values()

&gt;&gt;&gt; # iteration
&gt;&gt;&gt; n = 0
&gt;&gt;&gt; for val in values:
... n += val
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; print(n)
504

&gt;&gt;&gt; # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(keys)
[&#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;sausage&#39;, &#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(values)
[2, 1, 1, 500]

&gt;&gt;&gt; # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
&gt;&gt;&gt; del dishes[&#39;eggs&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; del dishes[&#39;sausage&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(keys)
[&#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;]

&gt;&gt;&gt; # set operations
&gt;&gt;&gt; keys &amp; {&#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;salad&#39;}
{&#39;bacon&#39;}
&gt;&gt;&gt; keys ^ {&#39;sausage&#39;, &#39;juice&#39;} == {&#39;juice&#39;, &#39;sausage&#39;, &#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;}
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; keys | [&#39;juice&#39;, &#39;juice&#39;, &#39;juice&#39;] == {&#39;bacon&#39;, &#39;spam&#39;, &#39;juice&#39;}
True

&gt;&gt;&gt; # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
&gt;&gt;&gt; values.mapping
mappingproxy({&#39;bacon&#39;: 1, &#39;spam&#39;: 500})
&gt;&gt;&gt; values.mapping[&#39;spam&#39;]
500
</pre></div>
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section id="context-manager-types">
<h2>Context Manager Types<a class="headerlink" href="#context-manager-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code></a> statement supports the concept of a runtime context
defined by a context manager. This is implemented using a pair of methods
that allow user-defined classes to define a runtime context that is entered
before the statement body is executed and exited when the statement ends:
<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="contextmanager.__enter__">
contextmanager.__enter__()<a class="headerlink" href="#contextmanager.__enter__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Enter the runtime context and return either this object or another object
related to the runtime context. The value returned by this method is bound to
the identifier in the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">as</code> clause of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code></a> statements using
this context manager.
An example of a context manager that returns itself is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object">file object</a>.
File objects return themselves from __enter__() to allow <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">open()</code></a> to be
used as the context expression in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code></a> statement.
An example of a context manager that returns a related object is the one
returned by <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.localcontext" title="decimal.localcontext"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">decimal.localcontext()</code></a>. These managers set the active
decimal context to a copy of the original decimal context and then return the
copy. This allows changes to be made to the current decimal context in the body
of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code></a> statement without affecting code outside the
<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code> statement.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="contextmanager.__exit__">
contextmanager.__exit__(exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)<a class="headerlink" href="#contextmanager.__exit__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Exit the runtime context and return a Boolean flag indicating if any exception
that occurred should be suppressed. If an exception occurred while executing the
body of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code></a> statement, the arguments contain the exception type,
value and traceback information. Otherwise, all three arguments are <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
Returning a true value from this method will cause the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code></a> statement
to suppress the exception and continue execution with the statement immediately
following the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code> statement. Otherwise the exception continues
propagating after this method has finished executing. Exceptions that occur
during execution of this method will replace any exception that occurred in the
body of the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">with</code> statement.
The exception passed in should never be reraised explicitly - instead, this
method should return a false value to indicate that the method completed
successfully and does not want to suppress the raised exception. This allows
context management code to easily detect whether or not an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__exit__" title="object.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__exit__()</code></a>
method has actually failed.
</dd></dl>

Python defines several context managers to support easy thread synchronisation,
prompt closure of files or other objects, and simpler manipulation of the active
decimal arithmetic context. The specific types are not treated specially beyond
their implementation of the context management protocol. See the
<a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#module-contextlib" title="contextlib: Utilities for with-statement contexts."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">contextlib</code></a> module for some examples.
Python’s <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generator">generator</a>s and the <a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">contextlib.contextmanager</code></a> decorator
provide a convenient way to implement these protocols. If a generator function is
decorated with the <a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">contextlib.contextmanager</code></a> decorator, it will return a
context manager implementing the necessary <a class="reference internal" href="#contextmanager.__enter__" title="contextmanager.__enter__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__enter__()</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="#contextmanager.__exit__" title="contextmanager.__exit__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__exit__()</code></a> methods, rather than the iterator produced by an
undecorated generator function.
Note that there is no specific slot for any of these methods in the type
structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. Extension types wanting to
define these methods must provide them as a normal Python accessible method.
Compared to the overhead of setting up the runtime context, the overhead of a
single class dictionary lookup is negligible.
</section>
<section id="type-annotation-types-generic-alias-union">
<h2>Type Annotation Types — <a class="reference internal" href="#types-genericalias">Generic Alias</a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#types-union">Union</a><a class="headerlink" href="#type-annotation-types-generic-alias-union" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
The core built-in types for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-annotation">type annotations</a> are
<a class="reference internal" href="#types-genericalias">Generic Alias</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#types-union">Union</a>.
<section id="generic-alias-type">
<h3>Generic Alias Type<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-alias-type" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> objects are generally created by
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#subscriptions">subscripting</a> a class. They are most often used with
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#sequence-types">container classes</a>, such as <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list[int]</code> is a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> object created
by subscripting the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list</code> class with the argument <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>.
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> objects are intended primarily for use with
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-annotation">type annotations</a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
It is generally only possible to subscript a class if the class implements
the special method <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__" title="object.__class_getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__class_getitem__()</code></a>.
</div>
A <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> object acts as a proxy for a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-generic-type">generic type</a>,
implementing parameterized generics.
For a container class, the
argument(s) supplied to a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#subscriptions">subscription</a> of the class may
indicate the type(s) of the elements an object contains. For example,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">set[bytes]</code> can be used in type annotations to signify a <a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> in
which all the elements are of type <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>.
For a class which defines <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__" title="object.__class_getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__class_getitem__()</code></a> but is not a
container, the argument(s) supplied to a subscription of the class will often
indicate the return type(s) of one or more methods defined on an object. For
example, <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">regular expressions</code></a> can be used on both the <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> data
type and the <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a> data type:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x = re.search('foo', 'foo')</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> will be a
<a class="reference internal" href="re.html#match-objects">re.Match</a> object where the return values of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">x.group(0)</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x[0]</code> will both be of type <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a>. We can
represent this kind of object in type annotations with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">re.Match[str]</code>.</li>
<li>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate">y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar')</code>, (note the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b</code> for <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>),
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">y</code> will also be an instance of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">re.Match</code>, but the return
values of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">y.group(0)</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">y[0]</code> will both be of type
<a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>. In type annotations, we would represent this
variety of <a class="reference internal" href="re.html#match-objects">re.Match</a> objects with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">re.Match[bytes]</code>.</li>
</ul>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> objects are instances of the class
<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.GenericAlias" title="types.GenericAlias"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">types.GenericAlias</code></a>, which can also be used to create <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code>
objects directly.
<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
T[X, Y, ...]</dt>
<dd>Creates a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> representing a type <code class="docutils literal notranslate">T</code> parameterized by types
X, Y, and more depending on the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">T</code> used.
For example, a function expecting a <a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a> containing
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a> elements:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def average(values: list[float]) -&gt; float:
 return sum(values) / len(values)
</pre></div>
</div>
Another example for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping">mapping</a> objects, using a <a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>, which
is a generic type expecting two type parameters representing the key type
and the value type. In this example, the function expects a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict</code> with
keys of type <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> and values of type <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -&gt; None:
 ...
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

The builtin functions <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isinstance()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">issubclass()</code></a> do not accept
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> types for their second argument:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic
</pre></div>
</div>
The Python runtime does not enforce <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-annotation">type annotations</a>.
This extends to generic types and their type parameters. When creating
a container object from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code>, the elements in the container are not checked
against their type. For example, the following code is discouraged, but will
run without errors:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; t = list[str]
&gt;&gt;&gt; t([1, 2, 3])
[1, 2, 3]
</pre></div>
</div>
Furthermore, parameterized generics erase type parameters during object
creation:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; t = list[str]
&gt;&gt;&gt; type(t)
&lt;class &#39;types.GenericAlias&#39;&gt;

&gt;&gt;&gt; l = t()
&gt;&gt;&gt; type(l)
&lt;class &#39;list&#39;&gt;
</pre></div>
</div>
Calling <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">repr()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a> on a generic shows the parameterized type:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; repr(list[int])
&#39;list[int]&#39;

&gt;&gt;&gt; str(list[int])
&#39;list[int]&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__" title="object.__getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getitem__()</code></a> method of generic containers will raise an
exception to disallow mistakes like <code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict[str][str]</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; dict[str][str]
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class
</pre></div>
</div>
However, such expressions are valid when <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#generics">type variables</a> are
used. The index must have as many elements as there are type variable items
in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> object’s <a class="reference internal" href="#genericalias.__args__" title="genericalias.__args__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__args__</code></a>.
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from typing import TypeVar
&gt;&gt;&gt; Y = TypeVar(&#39;Y&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; dict[str, Y][int]
dict[str, int]
</pre></div>
</div>
<section id="standard-generic-classes">
<h4>Standard Generic Classes<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-generic-classes" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>
The following standard library classes support parameterized generics. This
list is non-exhaustive.
<ul class="simple">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">type</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.deque</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.defaultdict</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.OrderedDict</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.Counter</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#collections.ChainMap" title="collections.ChainMap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.ChainMap</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Awaitable" title="collections.abc.Awaitable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Awaitable</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Coroutine" title="collections.abc.Coroutine"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Coroutine</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterable" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.AsyncIterable</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncIterator" title="collections.abc.AsyncIterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.AsyncIterator</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" title="collections.abc.AsyncGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.AsyncGenerator</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterable" title="collections.abc.Iterable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Iterable</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Iterator" title="collections.abc.Iterator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Iterator</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Generator" title="collections.abc.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Generator</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Reversible" title="collections.abc.Reversible"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Reversible</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Container" title="collections.abc.Container"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Container</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Collection" title="collections.abc.Collection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Collection</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Callable" title="collections.abc.Callable"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Callable</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Set" title="collections.abc.Set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Set</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSet" title="collections.abc.MutableSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.MutableSet</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Mapping" title="collections.abc.Mapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Mapping</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableMapping" title="collections.abc.MutableMapping"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.MutableMapping</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.Sequence" title="collections.abc.Sequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.Sequence</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MutableSequence" title="collections.abc.MutableSequence"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.MutableSequence</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ByteString" title="collections.abc.ByteString"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.ByteString</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.MappingView" title="collections.abc.MappingView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.MappingView</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.KeysView" title="collections.abc.KeysView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.KeysView</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ItemsView" title="collections.abc.ItemsView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.ItemsView</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="collections.abc.html#collections.abc.ValuesView" title="collections.abc.ValuesView"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">collections.abc.ValuesView</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">contextlib.AbstractContextManager</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="contextlib.html#contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager" title="contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="dataclasses.html#dataclasses.Field" title="dataclasses.Field"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dataclasses.Field</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.cached_property" title="functools.cached_property"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">functools.cached_property</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.partialmethod" title="functools.partialmethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">functools.partialmethod</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#os.PathLike" title="os.PathLike"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">os.PathLike</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.LifoQueue" title="queue.LifoQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">queue.LifoQueue</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.Queue" title="queue.Queue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">queue.Queue</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.PriorityQueue" title="queue.PriorityQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">queue.PriorityQueue</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="queue.html#queue.SimpleQueue" title="queue.SimpleQueue"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">queue.SimpleQueue</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#re-objects">re.Pattern</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="re.html#match-objects">re.Match</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#shelve.BsdDbShelf" title="shelve.BsdDbShelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">shelve.BsdDbShelf</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#shelve.DbfilenameShelf" title="shelve.DbfilenameShelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">shelve.DbfilenameShelf</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">shelve.Shelf</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.MappingProxyType" title="types.MappingProxyType"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">types.MappingProxyType</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#weakref.WeakKeyDictionary" title="weakref.WeakKeyDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">weakref.WeakKeyDictionary</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#weakref.WeakMethod" title="weakref.WeakMethod"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">weakref.WeakMethod</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#weakref.WeakSet" title="weakref.WeakSet"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">weakref.WeakSet</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="weakref.html#weakref.WeakValueDictionary" title="weakref.WeakValueDictionary"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">weakref.WeakValueDictionary</code></a></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section id="special-attributes-of-genericalias-objects">
<h4>Special Attributes of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> objects<a class="headerlink" href="#special-attributes-of-genericalias-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>
All parameterized generics implement special read-only attributes.
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="genericalias.__origin__">
genericalias.__origin__<a class="headerlink" href="#genericalias.__origin__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This attribute points at the non-parameterized generic class:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; list[int].__origin__
&lt;class &#39;list&#39;&gt;
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="genericalias.__args__">
genericalias.__args__<a class="headerlink" href="#genericalias.__args__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This attribute is a <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> (possibly of length 1) of generic
types passed to the original <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__" title="object.__class_getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__class_getitem__()</code></a> of the
generic class:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; dict[str, list[int]].__args__
(&lt;class &#39;str&#39;&gt;, list[int])
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="genericalias.__parameters__">
genericalias.__parameters__<a class="headerlink" href="#genericalias.__parameters__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This attribute is a lazily computed tuple (possibly empty) of unique type
variables found in <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__args__</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from typing import TypeVar

&gt;&gt;&gt; T = TypeVar(&#39;T&#39;)
&gt;&gt;&gt; list[T].__parameters__
(~T,)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
A <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> object with <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.ParamSpec" title="typing.ParamSpec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">typing.ParamSpec</code></a> parameters may not
have correct <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__parameters__</code> after substitution because
<a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.ParamSpec" title="typing.ParamSpec"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">typing.ParamSpec</code></a> is intended primarily for static type checking.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="genericalias.__unpacked__">
genericalias.__unpacked__<a class="headerlink" href="#genericalias.__unpacked__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A boolean that is true if the alias has been unpacked using the
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> operator (see <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.TypeVarTuple" title="typing.TypeVarTuple"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">TypeVarTuple</code></a>).
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.11.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<div class="admonition seealso">
See also
<dl class="simple">
<dt><a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/">PEP 484</a> - Type Hints</dt><dd>Introducing Python’s framework for type annotations.
</dd>
<dt><a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/">PEP 585</a> - Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections</dt><dd>Introducing the ability to natively parameterize standard-library
classes, provided they implement the special class method
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__class_getitem__" title="object.__class_getitem__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__class_getitem__()</code></a>.
</dd>
<dt><a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#generics">Generics</a>, <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#user-defined-generics">user-defined generics</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.Generic" title="typing.Generic"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">typing.Generic</code></a></dt><dd>Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be
parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.9.
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section id="union-type">
<h3>Union Type<a class="headerlink" href="#union-type" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
A union object holds the value of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code> (bitwise or) operation on
multiple <a class="reference internal" href="#bltin-type-objects">type objects</a>. These types are intended
primarily for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-annotation">type annotations</a>. The union type expression
enables cleaner type hinting syntax compared to <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.Union" title="typing.Union"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">typing.Union</code></a>.
<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
X | Y | ...</dt>
<dd>Defines a union object which holds types X, Y, and so forth. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">X | Y</code>
means either X or Y. It is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">typing.Union[X, Y]</code>.
For example, the following function expects an argument of type
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def square(number: int | float) -&gt; int | float:
 return number ** 2
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code> operand cannot be used at runtime to define unions where one or
more members is a forward reference. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">int | &quot;Foo&quot;</code>, where
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;Foo&quot;</code> is a reference to a class not yet defined, will fail at
runtime. For unions which include forward references, present the
whole expression as a string, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;int | Foo&quot;</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
union_object == other</dt>
<dd>Union objects can be tested for equality with other union objects. Details:
<ul>
<li>Unions of unions are flattened:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>(int | str) | float == int | str | float
</pre></div>
</div>
</li>
<li>Redundant types are removed:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>int | str | int == int | str
</pre></div>
</div>
</li>
<li>When comparing unions, the order is ignored:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>int | str == str | int
</pre></div>
</div>
</li>
<li>It is compatible with <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#typing.Union" title="typing.Union"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">typing.Union</code></a>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>int | str == typing.Union[int, str]
</pre></div>
</div>
</li>
<li>Optional types can be spelled as a union with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>str | None == typing.Optional[str]
</pre></div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
isinstance(obj, union_object)</dt>
<dd></dd></dl>

<dl class="describe">
<dt class="sig sig-object">
issubclass(obj, union_object)</dt>
<dd>Calls to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isinstance()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">issubclass()</code></a> are also supported with a
union object:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(&quot;&quot;, int | str)
True
</pre></div>
</div>
However, <a class="reference internal" href="#types-genericalias">parameterized generics</a> in
union objects cannot be checked:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1, int | list[int]) # short-circuit evaluation
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance([1], int | list[int])
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

The user-exposed type for the union object can be accessed from
<a class="reference internal" href="types.html#types.UnionType" title="types.UnionType"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">types.UnionType</code></a> and used for <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isinstance()</code></a> checks. An object cannot be
instantiated from the type:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import types
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(int | str, types.UnionType)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; types.UnionType()
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
TypeError: cannot create &#39;types.UnionType&#39; instances
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__or__()</code> method for type objects was added to support the syntax
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">X | Y</code>. If a metaclass implements <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__or__()</code>, the Union may
override it:
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; class M(type):
... def __or__(self, other):
... return &quot;Hello&quot;
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; class C(metaclass=M):
... pass
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; C | int
&#39;Hello&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; int | C
int | C
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="admonition seealso">
See also
<a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/">PEP 604</a> – PEP proposing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">X | Y</code> syntax and the Union type.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.10.
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section id="other-built-in-types">
<h2>Other Built-in Types<a class="headerlink" href="#other-built-in-types" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
The interpreter supports several other kinds of objects. Most of these support
only one or two operations.
<section id="modules">
<h3>Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#modules" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The only special operation on a module is attribute access: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">m.name</code>, where
m is a module and name accesses a name defined in m’s symbol table.
Module attributes can be assigned to. (Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a>
statement is not, strictly speaking, an operation on a module object; <code class="docutils literal notranslate">import
foo</code> does not require a module object named foo to exist, rather it requires
an (external) definition for a module named foo somewhere.)
A special attribute of every module is <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a>. This is the
dictionary containing the module’s symbol table. Modifying this dictionary will
actually change the module’s symbol table, but direct assignment to the
<a class="reference internal" href="#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> attribute is not possible (you can write
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">m.__dict__['a'] = 1</code>, which defines <code class="docutils literal notranslate">m.a</code> to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code>, but you can’t write
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">m.__dict__ = {}</code>). Modifying <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> directly is
not recommended.
Modules built into the interpreter are written like this: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;module 'sys'
(built-in)&gt;</code>. If loaded from a file, they are written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;module 'os' from
'/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'&gt;</code>.
</section>
<section id="classes-and-class-instances">
<h3>Classes and Class Instances<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-and-class-instances" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#objects">Objects, values and types</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class">Class definitions</a> for these.
</section>
<section id="functions">
<h3>Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Function objects are created by function definitions. The only operation on a
function object is to call it: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">func(argument-list)</code>.
There are really two flavors of function objects: built-in functions and
user-defined functions. Both support the same operation (to call the function),
but the implementation is different, hence the different object types.
See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function">Function definitions</a> for more information.
</section>
<section id="methods">
<h3>Methods<a class="headerlink" href="#methods" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation. There are
two flavors: <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#builtin-methods">built-in methods</a> (such as <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">append()</code>
on lists) and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#instance-methods">class instance method</a>.
Built-in methods are described with the types that support them.
If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through an
instance, you get a special object: a bound method (also called
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#instance-methods">instance method</a>) object. When called, it will add
the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">self</code> argument
to the argument list. Bound methods have two special read-only attributes:
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#method.__self__" title="method.__self__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">m.__self__</code></a> is the object on which the method
operates, and <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#method.__func__" title="method.__func__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">m.__func__</code></a> is
the function implementing the method. Calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate">m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)</code>
is completely equivalent to calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate">m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2, ...,
arg-n)</code>.
Like <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#user-defined-funcs">function objects</a>, bound method objects support
getting arbitrary
attributes. However, since method attributes are actually stored on the
underlying function object (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#method.__func__" title="method.__func__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">method.__func__</code></a>), setting method attributes on
bound methods is disallowed. Attempting to set an attribute on a method
results in an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">AttributeError</code></a> being raised. In order to set a method
attribute, you need to explicitly set it on the underlying function object:
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; class C:
... def method(self):
... pass
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; c = C()
&gt;&gt;&gt; c.method.whoami = &#39;my name is method&#39; # can&#39;t set on the method
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File &quot;&lt;stdin&gt;&quot;, line 1, in &lt;module&gt;
AttributeError: &#39;method&#39; object has no attribute &#39;whoami&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; c.method.__func__.whoami = &#39;my name is method&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; c.method.whoami
&#39;my name is method&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#instance-methods">Instance methods</a> for more information.
</section>
<section id="code-objects">
<h3>Code Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#code-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Code objects are used by the implementation to represent “pseudo-compiled”
executable Python code such as a function body. They differ from function
objects because they don’t contain a reference to their global execution
environment. Code objects are returned by the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">compile()</code></a> function
and can be extracted from function objects through their
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#function.__code__" title="function.__code__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__code__</code></a> attribute. See also the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">code</code></a> module.
Accessing <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#function.__code__" title="function.__code__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__code__</code></a> raises an <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#auditing">auditing event</a>
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">object.__getattr__</code> with arguments <code class="docutils literal notranslate">obj</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;__code__&quot;</code>.
A code object can be executed or evaluated by passing it (instead of a source
string) to the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">exec()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a> built-in functions.
See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types">The standard type hierarchy</a> for more information.
</section>
<section id="type-objects">
<h3>Type Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#type-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Type objects represent the various object types. An object’s type is accessed
by the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">type()</code></a>. There are no special operations on
types. The standard module <a class="reference internal" href="types.html#module-types" title="types: Names for built-in types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">types</code></a> defines names for all standard built-in
types.
Types are written like this: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&lt;class 'int'&gt;</code>.
</section>
<section id="the-null-object">
<h3>The Null Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-null-object" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
This object is returned by functions that don’t explicitly return a value. It
supports no special operations. There is exactly one null object, named
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> (a built-in name). <code class="docutils literal notranslate">type(None)()</code> produces the same singleton.
It is written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
</section>
<section id="the-ellipsis-object">
<h3>The Ellipsis Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-ellipsis-object" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
This object is commonly used by slicing (see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#slicings">Slicings</a>). It supports no
special operations. There is exactly one ellipsis object, named
<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">Ellipsis</code></a> (a built-in name). <code class="docutils literal notranslate">type(Ellipsis)()</code> produces the
<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">Ellipsis</code></a> singleton.
It is written as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Ellipsis</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">...</code>.
</section>
<section id="the-notimplemented-object">
<h3>The NotImplemented Object<a class="headerlink" href="#the-notimplemented-object" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they are
asked to operate on types they don’t support. See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/expressions.html#comparisons">Comparisons</a> for more
information. There is exactly one <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#NotImplemented" title="NotImplemented"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">NotImplemented</code></a> object.
<code class="code docutils literal notranslate">type(NotImplemented)()</code> produces the singleton instance.
It is written as <code class="code docutils literal notranslate">NotImplemented</code>.
</section>
<section id="internal-objects">
<h3>Internal Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#internal-objects" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
See <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types">The standard type hierarchy</a> for this information. It describes
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#frame-objects">stack frame objects</a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#traceback-objects">traceback objects</a>, and slice objects.
</section>
</section>
<section id="special-attributes">
<h2>Special Attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#special-attributes" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
The implementation adds a few special read-only attributes to several object
types, where they are relevant. Some of these are not reported by the
<a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">dir()</code></a> built-in function.
<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="object.__dict__">
object.__dict__<a class="headerlink" href="#object.__dict__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object’s (writable)
attributes.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="instance.__class__">
instance.__class__<a class="headerlink" href="#instance.__class__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The class to which a class instance belongs.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="class.__bases__">
class.__bases__<a class="headerlink" href="#class.__bases__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The tuple of base classes of a class object.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="definition.__name__">
definition.__name__<a class="headerlink" href="#definition.__name__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The name of the class, function, method, descriptor, or
generator instance.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="definition.__qualname__">
definition.__qualname__<a class="headerlink" href="#definition.__qualname__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-qualified-name">qualified name</a> of the class, function, method, descriptor,
or generator instance.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="definition.__type_params__">
definition.__type_params__<a class="headerlink" href="#definition.__type_params__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#type-params">type parameters</a> of generic classes, functions,
and <a class="reference internal" href="typing.html#type-aliases">type aliases</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.12.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py attribute">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="class.__mro__">
class.__mro__<a class="headerlink" href="#class.__mro__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when looking for
base classes during method resolution.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="class.mro">
class.mro()<a class="headerlink" href="#class.mro" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method
resolution order for its instances. It is called at class instantiation, and
its result is stored in <a class="reference internal" href="#class.__mro__" title="class.__mro__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__mro__</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py method">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="class.__subclasses__">
class.__subclasses__()<a class="headerlink" href="#class.__subclasses__" title="Link to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses. This
method returns a list of all those references still alive. The list is in
definition order. Example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; int.__subclasses__()
[&lt;class &#39;bool&#39;&gt;, &lt;enum &#39;IntEnum&#39;&gt;, &lt;flag &#39;IntFlag&#39;&gt;, &lt;class &#39;re._constants._NamedIntConstant&#39;&gt;]
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="integer-string-conversion-length-limitation">
<h2>Integer string conversion length limitation<a class="headerlink" href="#integer-string-conversion-length-limitation" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
CPython has a global limit for converting between <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a>
to mitigate denial of service attacks. This limit only applies to decimal or
other non-power-of-two number bases. Hexadecimal, octal, and binary conversions
are unlimited. The limit can be configured.
The <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> type in CPython is an arbitrary length number stored in binary
form (commonly known as a “bignum”). There exists no algorithm that can convert
a string to a binary integer or a binary integer to a string in linear time,
unless the base is a power of 2. Even the best known algorithms for base 10
have sub-quadratic complexity. Converting a large value such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">int('1' *
500_000)</code> can take over a second on a fast CPU.
Limiting conversion size offers a practical way to avoid <a class="reference external" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2020-10735">CVE-2020-10735</a>.
The limit is applied to the number of digit characters in the input or output
string when a non-linear conversion algorithm would be involved. Underscores
and the sign are not counted towards the limit.
When an operation would exceed the limit, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#ValueError" title="ValueError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code></a> is raised:
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import sys
&gt;&gt;&gt; sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300) # Illustrative, this is the default.
&gt;&gt;&gt; _ = int(&#39;2&#39; * 5432)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
&gt;&gt;&gt; i = int(&#39;2&#39; * 4300)
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(str(i))
4300
&gt;&gt;&gt; i_squared = i*i
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(str(i_squared))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
&gt;&gt;&gt; len(hex(i_squared))
7144
&gt;&gt;&gt; assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i # Hexadecimal is unlimited.
</pre></div>
</div>
The default limit is 4300 digits as provided in
<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info" title="sys.int_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits</code></a>.
The lowest limit that can be configured is 640 digits as provided in
<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info" title="sys.int_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold</code></a>.
Verification:
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import sys
&gt;&gt;&gt; assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
&gt;&gt;&gt; assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
&gt;&gt;&gt; msg = int(&#39;578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564&#39;
... &#39;9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600&#39;
... &#39;571186405732&#39;).to_bytes(53, &#39;big&#39;)
...
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.11.
</div>
<section id="affected-apis">
<h3>Affected APIs<a class="headerlink" href="#affected-apis" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The limitation only applies to potentially slow conversions between <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>
and <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code></a>:
<ul class="simple">
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">int(string)</code> with default base 10.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">int(string, base)</code> for all bases that are not a power of 2.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">str(integer)</code>.</li>
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">repr(integer)</code>.</li>
<li>any other string conversion to base 10, for example <code class="docutils literal notranslate">f&quot;{integer}&quot;</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">&quot;{}&quot;.format(integer)</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">b&quot;%d&quot; % integer</code>.</li>
</ul>
The limitations do not apply to functions with a linear algorithm:
<ul class="simple">
<li><code class="docutils literal notranslate">int(string, base)</code> with base 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#int.from_bytes" title="int.from_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int.from_bytes()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#int.to_bytes" title="int.to_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int.to_bytes()</code></a>.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">hex()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">oct()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bin()</code></a>.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatspec">Format Specification Mini-Language</a> for hex, octal, and binary numbers.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code></a>.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> to <a class="reference internal" href="decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">decimal.Decimal</code></a>.</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section id="configuring-the-limit">
<h3>Configuring the limit<a class="headerlink" href="#configuring-the-limit" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
Before Python starts up you can use an environment variable or an interpreter
command line flag to configure the limit:
<ul class="simple">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate">PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS</code></a>, e.g.
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640 python3</code> to set the limit to 640 or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0 python3</code> to disable the limitation.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-X"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">-X int_max_str_digits</code></a>, e.g.
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">python3 -X int_max_str_digits=640</code></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.flags.int_max_str_digits" title="sys.flags.int_max_str_digits"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.flags.int_max_str_digits</code></a> contains the value of
<a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate">PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-X"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">-X int_max_str_digits</code></a>.
If both the env var and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-X</code> option are set, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-X</code> option takes
precedence. A value of -1 indicates that both were unset, thus a value of
<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits" title="sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits</code></a> was used during initialization.</li>
</ul>
From code, you can inspect the current limit and set a new one using these
<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">sys</code></a> APIs:
<ul class="simple">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.get_int_max_str_digits" title="sys.get_int_max_str_digits"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sys.get_int_max_str_digits()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.set_int_max_str_digits" title="sys.set_int_max_str_digits"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sys.set_int_max_str_digits()</code></a> are
a getter and setter for the interpreter-wide limit. Subinterpreters have
their own limit.</li>
</ul>
Information about the default and minimum can be found in <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info" title="sys.int_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info</code></a>:
<ul class="simple">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info" title="sys.int_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits</code></a> is the compiled-in
default limit.</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info" title="sys.int_info"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold</code></a> is the lowest
accepted value for the limit (other than 0 which disables it).</li>
</ul>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 3.11.
</div>
<div class="admonition caution">
Caution
Setting a low limit can lead to problems. While rare, code exists that
contains integer constants in decimal in their source that exceed the
minimum threshold. A consequence of setting the limit is that Python source
code containing decimal integer literals longer than the limit will
encounter an error during parsing, usually at startup time or import time or
even at installation time - anytime an up to date <code class="docutils literal notranslate">.pyc</code> does not already
exist for the code. A workaround for source that contains such large
constants is to convert them to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0x</code> hexadecimal form as it has no limit.
Test your application thoroughly if you use a low limit. Ensure your tests
run with the limit set early via the environment or flag so that it applies
during startup and even during any installation step that may invoke Python
to precompile <code class="docutils literal notranslate">.py</code> sources to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">.pyc</code> files.
</div>
</section>
<section id="recommended-configuration">
<h3>Recommended configuration<a class="headerlink" href="#recommended-configuration" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
The default <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits" title="sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits</code></a> is expected to be
reasonable for most applications. If your application requires a different
limit, set it from your main entry point using Python version agnostic code as
these APIs were added in security patch releases in versions before 3.12.
Example:
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import sys
&gt;&gt;&gt; if hasattr(sys, &quot;set_int_max_str_digits&quot;):
... upper_bound = 68000
... lower_bound = 4004
... current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
... if current_limit == 0 or current_limit &gt; upper_bound:
... sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
... elif current_limit &lt; lower_bound:
... sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)
</pre></div>
</div>
If you need to disable it entirely, set it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>.
Footnotes
<aside class="footnote-list brackets">
<aside class="footnote brackets" id="id12" role="doc-footnote">
[<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id1">1</a>]
Additional information on these special methods may be found in the Python
Reference Manual (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#customization">Basic customization</a>).
</aside>
<aside class="footnote brackets" id="id13" role="doc-footnote">
[<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id2">2</a>]
As a consequence, the list <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[1, 2]</code> is considered equal to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[1.0, 2.0]</code>, and
similarly for tuples.
</aside>
<aside class="footnote brackets" id="id14" role="doc-footnote">
[<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id4">3</a>]
They must have since the parser can’t tell the type of the operands.
</aside>
<aside class="footnote brackets" id="id15" role="doc-footnote">
[4]
(<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id6">1</a>,<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id7">2</a>,<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id8">3</a>,<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id9">4</a>)
Cased characters are those with general category property being one of
“Lu” (Letter, uppercase), “Ll” (Letter, lowercase), or “Lt” (Letter, titlecase).
</aside>
<aside class="footnote brackets" id="id16" role="doc-footnote">
[5]
(<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id10">1</a>,<a role="doc-backlink" href="#id11">2</a>)
To format only a tuple you should therefore provide a singleton tuple whose only
element is the tuple to be formatted.
</aside>
</aside>
</section>
</section>
</section>

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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Built-in Types</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#truth-value-testing">Truth Value Testing</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-operations-and-or-not">Boolean Operations — <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">and</code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">or</code>, <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">not</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#comparisons">Comparisons</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numeric-types-int-float-complex">Numeric Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">float</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">complex</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bitwise-operations-on-integer-types">Bitwise Operations on Integer Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-methods-on-integer-types">Additional Methods on Integer Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#additional-methods-on-float">Additional Methods on Float</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashing-of-numeric-types">Hashing of numeric types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#boolean-type-bool">Boolean Type - <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iterator-types">Iterator Types</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generator-types">Generator Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#sequence-types-list-tuple-range">Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">range</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#common-sequence-operations">Common Sequence Operations</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#immutable-sequence-types">Immutable Sequence Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mutable-sequence-types">Mutable Sequence Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lists">Lists</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#tuples">Tuples</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ranges">Ranges</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#text-sequence-type-str">Text Sequence Type — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#string-methods">String Methods</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printf-style-string-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code>-style String Formatting</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview">Binary Sequence Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytes</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">memoryview</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-objects">Bytes Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray-objects">Bytearray Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes-and-bytearray-operations">Bytes and Bytearray Operations</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#printf-style-bytes-formatting"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">printf</code>-style Bytes Formatting</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#memory-views">Memory Views</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#set-types-set-frozenset">Set Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mapping-types-dict">Mapping Types — <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dictionary-view-objects">Dictionary view objects</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#context-manager-types">Context Manager Types</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-annotation-types-generic-alias-union">Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#generic-alias-type">Generic Alias Type</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-generic-classes">Standard Generic Classes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-attributes-of-genericalias-objects">Special Attributes of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">GenericAlias</code> objects</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#union-type">Union Type</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-built-in-types">Other Built-in Types</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#modules">Modules</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-and-class-instances">Classes and Class Instances</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#functions">Functions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods">Methods</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-objects">Code Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-objects">Type Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-null-object">The Null Object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-ellipsis-object">The Ellipsis Object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-notimplemented-object">The NotImplemented Object</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#internal-objects">Internal Objects</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#special-attributes">Special Attributes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#integer-string-conversion-length-limitation">Integer string conversion length limitation</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#affected-apis">Affected APIs</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#configuring-the-limit">Configuring the limit</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recommended-configuration">Recommended configuration</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

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